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growth hormone 1
Symbol(s): GH1
Locus: 17 q22 -q24
EC number [1]
EntrezGene 2688
OMIM 139250
RefSeq NM_022562
UniProt P01241



Growth hormone (GH or somatotropin) is a polypeptide hormone synthesised and secreted by the anterior pituitary gland which stimulates growth and cell reproduction in humans and other vertebrate animals.

Two hypothalamic hormones, Growth hormone releasing factor (GRF) and somatostatin modulate its release from the pituitary. GRF is stimulating; in contrast, somatostatin inhibits release. Somatostatin is also found in extra-hypothalamic regions, and appears to act as a neurotransmitter.

This article describes human growth hormone physiology, with brief mentions of the diseases of GH deficiency, GH excess (acromegaly and pituitary gigantism), as well as GH treatment, and HGH quackery. Each of these topics is treated more fully in separate articles.


Terminology[]

Growth hormone (GH) is also called somatropin and somatotropin (British: somatotrophin). hGH refers to human growth hormone and is an abbreviation for human GH measured in the extracts from human pituitary glands. In 1985, biosynthetic human growth hormone replaced pituitary-derived human growth hormone for therapeutic use in the U.S. and elsewhere. Biosynthetic human growth hormone, also referred to as recombinant human growth hormone, is also called somatropin and abbreviated as rhGH. Since the mid-1990s the abbreviation HGH has begun to carry paradoxical connotations, and now rarely refers to real GH used for indicated purposes. See articles on GH treatment and hGH quackery for fuller discussions of GH therapy and the HGH issue.

Growth hormone has a variety of functions in the body, the most noticeable of which is the increase of height throughout childhood, and there are several diseases which can be treated through the therapeutic use of GH.

Gene locus[]

Main article: Growth hormone 1

The genes for human growth hormone, known as Growth hormone 1, are localized in the q22-24 region of chromosome 17 and are closely related to human chorionic somatomammotropin (also known as placental lactogen) genes. GH, human chorionic somatomammotropin, and prolactin (PRL) are a group of homologous hormones with growth-promoting and lactogenic activity.

Molecular structures[]

The major isoform of the human growth hormone is a protein of 191 amino acids and a molecular weight of about 22,000 daltons. The structure includes four helices necessary for functional interaction with the GH receptor. GH is structurally and apparently evolutionarily homologous to prolactin and chorionic somatomammotropin. Despite marked structural similarities between growth hormone from different species, only human and primate growth hormones have significant effects in humans.

Secretion[]

Several molecular forms of GH circulate. Much of the growth hormone in the circulation is bound to a protein (growth hormone binding protein, GHBP) which is derived from the growth hormone receptor.

Regulation[]

Peptides released by neurosecretory nuclei of the hypothalamus into the portal venous blood surrounding the pituitary are the major controllers of GH secretion by the somatotropes. However, although the balance of these stimulating and inhibiting peptides determines GH release, this balance is affected by many physiological stimulators and inhibitors of GH secretion. [1]

Stimulators of GH secretion include:

Inhibitors of GH secretion include:

In addition to control by endogenous processes, a number of foreign compounds (xenobiotics) are now known to influence GH secretion and function [3], highlighting the fact that the GH-IGF axis is an emerging target for certain endocrine disrupting chemicals ( see endocrine disruptor).

Secretion patterns[]

Most of the physiologically important secretion occurs as several large pulses or peaks of GH release each day. The plasma concentration of GH during these peaks may range from 5 to 35 ng/mL or more. Peaks typically last from 10 to 30 minutes before returning to basal levels. The largest and most predictable of these GH peaks occurs about an hour after onset of sleep.[4] Otherwise there is wide variation between days and individuals. Between the peaks, basal GH levels are low, usually less than 3 ng/mL for most of the day and night.

The amount and pattern of GH secretion change throughout life. Basal levels are highest in early childhood. The amplitude and frequency of peaks is greatest during the pubertal growth spurt. Healthy children and adolescents average about 8 peaks per 24 hours. Adults average about 5 peaks. Basal levels and the frequency and amplitude of peaks decline throughout adult life. Also may have impact/help growth of colon, lung, and breast cancer.

Functions of GH[]

Effects of growth hormone on the tissues of the body can generally be described as anabolic (building up). Like most other protein hormones GH acts by interacting with a specific receptor on the surface of cells.

Stimulating the increase in height in childhood is the most widely known effect of GH, and appears to be stimulated by at least two mechanisms.

  1. GH directly stimulates division and multiplication of chondrocytes of cartilage. These are the primary cells in the growing ends (epiphyses) of children's long bones (arms, legs, digits).
  2. GH also stimulates production of insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1, formerly known as somatomedin C), a hormone homologous to proinsulin.[5] The liver is a major target organ of GH for this process, and is the principal site of IGF-1 production. IGF-1 has growth-stimulating effects on a wide variety of tissues. Additional IGF-1 is generated within target tissues, making it apparently both an endocrine and an autocrine/paracrine hormone. IGF-1 also has stimulatory effects on osteoblast and chondrocyte activity to promote bone growth.

In addition to increasing height in children and adolescents, growth hormone has many other effects on the body:

Excesses[]

The most common disease of GH excess is a pituitary tumor composed of somatotroph cells of the anterior pituitary. These somatotroph adenomas are benign and grow slowly, gradually producing more and more GH. For years, the principal clinical problems are those of GH excess. Eventually the adenoma may become large enough to cause headaches, impair vision by pressure on the optic nerves, or cause deficiency of other pituitary hormones by displacement.

Prolonged GH excess thickens the bones of the jaw, fingers and toes. Resulting heaviness of the jaw and increased thickness of digits is referred to as acromegaly. Accompanying problems can include pressure on nerves (e.g., carpal tunnel syndrome), muscle weakness, insulin resistance or even a rare form of type 2 diabetes, and reduced sexual function.

GH-secreting tumors are typically recognized in the fifth decade of life. It is extremely rare for such a tumor to occur in childhood, but when it does the excessive GH can cause excessive growth, traditionally referred to as pituitary gigantism.

Surgical removal is the usual treatment for GH-producing tumors. In some circumstances focused radiation or a GH antagonist such as bromocriptine or octreotide may be employed to shrink the tumor or block function.

Deficiencies[]

Main article: Growth hormone deficiency

The effects of growth hormone deficiency vary depending on the age at which they occur. In children, growth failure and short stature are the major manifestations of GH deficiency. It can also cause sexual immaturity. In adults the effects of deficiency are more subtle, and may include deficiencies of strength, energy, and bone mass, as well as increased cardiovascular risk.

There are many causes of GH deficiency, including mutations of specific genes, congenital malformations involving the hypothalamus and/or pituitary gland, and damage to the pituitary from injury, surgery or disease.

Diagnosis of GH deficiency involves a multiple step diagnostic process, usually culminating in GH stimulation test(s) to see if the patient's pituitary gland will release a pulse of GH when provoked by various stimuli.

Deficiency is treated through supplementation with external GH. All GH in current use is a biosynthetic version of human GH, manufactured by recombinant DNA technology. As GH is a large protein molecule, it must be injected subcutaneously to access the bloodstream (injections no longer have to enter muscle mass since 1985 with the production of synthetic GH). When the patient has had a long-standing deficiency of GH benefits of treatment are often dramatic and side effects of treatment are rare. Increased growth in childhood can result in dramatically improved adult height.

GH is used as replacement therapy in adults with GH deficiency of either childhood-onset (after completing growth phase) or adult-onset (usually as a result of an acquired pituitary tumor). In these patients, benefits have variably included reduced fat mass, increased lean mass, increased bone density, improved lipid profile, reduced cardiovascular risk factors, and improved psychosocial well-being.

Therapeutic use[]

Treatments unrelated to deficiency[]

GH can be used to treat conditions which produce short stature but are not related to deficiencies in GH, though results are not as dramatic when compared to short stature solely due to deficiency of GH. Examples of other causes of shortness often treated with GH are Turner syndrome, chronic renal failure, Prader-Willi syndrome, intrauterine growth retardation, and severe idiopathic short stature. Higher ("pharmacologic") doses are required to produce significant acceleration of growth in these conditions, producing blood levels well above physiologic. Despite the higher doses, side effects during treatment are rare, and vary little according to the condition being treated.

GH treatment improves muscle strength and slightly reduces body fat in Prader-Willi syndrome, which are significant concerns beyond the need to increase height. GH is also useful in maintaining muscle mass in wasting due to AIDS. GH can also be used in patients with short bowel syndrome to lessen the requirement for intravenous total parenteral nutrition.

Uses that are controversial include


Anti-aging agent[]

Claims for GH as an anti-aging treatment date back to 1990 when the New England Journal of Medicine published a study where GH was used to treat 12 men over 60. At the conclusion of the study all the men showed statistically significant increases in lean body mass and bone mineral, while the control group did not. The authors of the study noted that these were the kind of changes that would occur naturally over a 10 to 20 year aging period. Despite the fact the authors at no time claimed that GH had reversed the aging process itself, their results were mis-interpreted as indicating GH was an effective anti-aging agent. [7]

A Stanford University School of Medicine survey of clinical studies on the subject published in early 2007 showed that the application of GH on healthy elderly patients increased muscle by about 2 kg and decreased body fat by the same amount.[7] However, these were the only positive effects from taking GH. No other critical factors were affected, such as bone density, cholesterol levels, lipid measurements, maximal oxygen consumption, or any other factor that would indicate increased fitness.[7] Researchers also didn't discover any gain in muscle strength, which led them to believe that GH merely let the body store more water in the muscles rather than increase muscle growth. This would explain the increase in lean body mass. Regular application of GH did show several negative side effects such as joint swelling, joint pain, carpal tunnel syndrome, and an increased risk of diabetes.[7]

Side effects[]

Main article: HGH controversies

There is theoretical concern that GH treatment may increase the risks of diabetes, especially in those with other predispositions treated with higher doses. One survey of adults who had been treated with replacement cadaver GH (which has not been used anywhere in the world, since 1985) during childhood showed a mildly increased incidence of colon cancer, but linkage with the GH treatment was not established.[8]

History[]

Main article: Growth_hormone_treatment#History

The identification, purification and later synthesis of growth hormone is associated with Choh Hao Li. Genentech pioneered the first use of recombinant human growth hormone for human therapy in 1981.

See also[]

References[]

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  3. Scarth J. Modulation of the growth hormone-insulin-like growth factor (GH-IGF) axis by pharmaceutical, nutraceutical and environmental xenobiotics: an emerging role for xenobiotic-metabolizing enzymes and the transcription factors regulating their expression. A review. Xenobiotica 36 (2-3): 119-218.
  4. Takahashi Y, Kipnis D, Daughaday W (1968). Growth hormone secretion during sleep. J Clin Invest 47 (9): 2079-90.
  5. Actions of Anterior Pituitary Hormones: Physiologic Actions of GH. Medical College of Georgia. URL accessed on 2008-01-16.
  6. King, MW Structure and Function of Hormones: Growth Hormone. Indiana State University. URL accessed on 2008-01-16.
  7. 7.0 7.1 7.2 7.3 Liu H, Bravata DM, Olkin I, et al (2007). Systematic review: the safety and efficacy of growth hormone in the healthy elderly. Ann. Intern. Med. 146 (2): 104–15.; news report
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Target-derived NGF, BDNF, NT-3

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