Neuroscience

Neuroscience is a field of study that deals with the structure, function, development, genetics, biochemistry, physiology, pharmacology, and pathology of the nervous system, divided into the central nervous system (the brain and spinal cord), and the peripheral nervous system, consisting of the myriad nerve pathways running throughout the body. The study of behavior and learning is also a division of neuroscience.

The biological study of the human brain is an interdisciplinary field that involves many levels of study, from the molecular level through the cellular level (individual neurons), the level of relatively small assemblies of neurons like cortical columns, that of larger subsystems like that which subserves visual perception, up to large systems including the cerebral cortex or the cerebellum, and at the highest level the nervous system as a whole.

At this highest level, neuroscientific approaches combine with cognitive science to create cognitive neuroscience, a discipline first populated mostly by cognitive psychologists, currently becoming a dynamic specialty of its own. Some researchers believe that cognitive neuroscience provides a bottom-up approach to understanding the mind and consciousness that is complementary to, or may replace, the top-down approach of psychology.

The concern of neuroscience includes such diverse topics as
 * the operation of neurotransmitters at the synapse
 * the biological mechanisms that underlie learning (both declarative learning and motor learning)
 * how genes contribute to neural development in the embryo and throughout life
 * the operation of relatively simpler neural structures of other organisms like marine snails
 * and the structure and functioning of complex neural circuits in perceiving, remembering, and speaking.

Spanish histologist Santiago Ramón y Cajal pioneered the field of cellular neuroscience through his research into the microscopic properties of the brain. His discovery that the cortical layers of the brain are composed of millions of individual cells (neurons), and that those cells can become polarized, laid the foundation for the modern understanding of neuronal functioning.

Fields within neuroscience
There are many areas of study within neuroscience including:
 * Molecular and cellular neuroscience: These two fields integrate neurobiology with neurochemistry. The goals of these fields are to understand the cellular and chemical mechanisms responsible for normal and abnormal brain function.
 * Developmental neuroscience: This field studies the ways in which the ectodermally-derived central nervous system and mesodermally-derived peripheral nervous system develops into adulthood. Developmental neuroscience uses a variety of animal models including the fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster, zebrafish Danio rerio, Xenopus laevis tadpoles, and the worm Caenorhabditis elegans, among others.
 * Cognitive neuroscience: Cognitive neuroscience aims to understand the brain mechanisms the underlie "higher level" brain functions, usually in humans. These functions include language, learning and memory, attention, emotion, etc.
 * Computational and systems neuroscience: These two fields are interested in understanding the computational roles of various parts of the nervous sytem. The methods of research combine computer and mathematical computational models with physiological recordings of single cells, neuronal clusters, and entire brain systems to learn and model brain function.
 * Neurobiology of disease: This field, directly aligned with medical research, is interested in understanding diseases associated with the nervous system.

"Neuroscience" is a blanket term that refers to all the specific fields that study the nervous system. In some sense, psychology is actually a sub-field of neuroscience, although some mind/body theorists argue that the definition goes the other way. Neurobiology is often used interchangeably with neuroscience, but may refer specifically to the study of the biology of the nervous system. There is, however, some ambiguity within the neuroscience community as to the difference between the two terms. Neurology is the branch of medicine that deals with the nervous system.

Other related and overlapping fields include:
 * Aphasiology
 * Computational neuroscience
 * Neuroanatomy
 * Neurochemistry
 * Neuroeconomics
 * Neuroendocrinology
 * Neuroesthetics
 * Neuroethology
 * Neuroheuristic
 * Neuroimaging
 * Neurolinguistics
 * Neuromarketing
 * Neurophilosophy
 * Neurophysiology
 * Neuropsychiatry
 * Neuropsychology
 * Neurotheology (also Biotheology)
 * Neuropsychopharmacology
 * Psychiatry
 * Psychopharmacology
 * Psychobiology (also Biopsychology, also Biological psychology)
 * Evolutionary neuroscience
 * Neurogenomics
 * Neurophenomenology
 * Neuroethics
 * Neuroprosthetics
 * Neural engineering

Textbooks

 * Bear, M. F. et. al. Eds. (1995). Neuroscience: Exploring The Brain. Baltimore, Maryland, Williams and Wilkins. ISBN 0781739446
 * Kandel ER, Schwartz JH, Jessell TM. Principles of Neural Science, 4th ed. McGraw-Hill, New York (2000). ISBN 0838577016
 * Squire, L. et al. (2003). Fundamental Neuroscience, 2nd edition. Academic Press; ISBN 0126603030
 * Byrne and Roberts (2004). From Molecules to Networks. Academic Press; ISBN 0121486605
 * Sanes, Reh, Harris (2005). Development of the Nervous System, 2nd edition. Academic Press; ISBN 0126186219
 * Siegel et al. (2005). Basic Neurochemistry, 7th edition. Academic Press; ISBN 012088397X
 * Rieke, F. et. al. (1999). Spikes: Exploring the Neural Code. The MIT Press; Reprint edition ISBN 0262681080

Online textbooks

 * Neuroscience 2nd ed. Dale Purves, George J. Augustine, David Fitzpatrick, Lawrence C. Katz, Anthony-Samuel LaMantia, James O. McNamara, S. Mark Williams. Published by Sinauer Associates, Inc., 2001.
 * Basic Neurochemistry: Molecular, Cellular, and Medical Aspects 6th ed. by George J. Siegel, Bernard W. Agranoff, R. Wayne Albers, Stephen K. Fisher, Michael D. Uhler, editors. Published by Lippincott, Williams & Wilkins, 1999.

Popular works

 * Andreason, N. C. (2001). Brave New Brain: Conquering Mental Illness in the Age of the Genome. Oxford, Oxford University Press. ISBN 0195145097 (Hardcover) ISBN 0195167287 (Paperback)
 * Damasio, A. R. (1994). Descartes' Error: Emotion, Reason, and the Human Brain. New York, Avon Books. ISBN 0399138943 (Hardcover) ISBN 0380726475 (Paperback)
 * Gardner, H. (1976). The Shattered Mind: The Person After Brain Damage. New York, Vintage Books, 1976 ISBN 0394719468
 * Goldstein, K. (2000). The Organism. New York, Zone Books. ISBN 0942299965 (Hardcover) ISBN 0942299973 (Paperback)
 * Luria, A. R. (1997). The Man with a Shattered World: The History of a Brain Wound. Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press. ISBN 0224007920 (Hardcover) ISBN 0674546253 (Paperback)
 * Luria, A. R. (1998). The Mind of a Mnemonist: A Little Book About A Vast Memory. New York, Basic Books, Inc. ISBN 0674576225
 * Sacks, O. The Man Who Mistook His Wife for a Hat. Summit Books ISBN 0671554719 (Hardcover) ISBN 0060970790 (Paperback)
 * Sacks, O. (1990). Awakenings. New York, Vintage Books. (See also Oliver Sacks) ISBN 0671648349 (Hardcover) ISBN 0060973684 (Paperback)