Neurolinguistic programming

Neuro-Linguistic Programming (NLP) is a collection of pseudoscientific self-help rituals proposed for programming the mind.

NLP was proposed in 1973 by Richard Bandler and John Grinder as a set of models and principles to describe the relationship between mind (neuro) and language (linguistic, both verbal and non-verbal) and how their interaction might be organized (programming) to affect an individual's mind, body and behavior. It is described by the original developers as "therapeutic magic" and "the study of the structure of subjective experience". It is predicated upon the assumption that all behaviors have a practically determinable structure.

NLP is based on New Age principles such as the belief in unlimited potential through access to subconscious engrams, and body language cues derived from the observation of “therapeutic wizards”. Some techniques include behavior change, transforming beliefs, and treatment of traumas through techniques such as reframing and the "meta-modeling"  proposed for exploring the personal limits of belief as expressed in language.

The practice initially attracted mostly therapists, although it eventually attracted business and sales people, and New Age believers. NLP has been applied to a number of fields such as sales, psychotherapy, communication, education, coaching, sport, business management, interpersonal relationships, seduction, occult and spirituality.

NLP has been criticized in scientific research reviews which conclude that it is scientifically unsupported and largely ineffective. Several reviews have concluded that NLP is merely pseudoscientific mass-marketed psychobabble. NLP is identified as a dubious therapy and described by experts such as Winkin, and the US-based NGO National Council Against Health Fraud as charlatanry and fraudulent  and is promoted in the same mold as Dianetics and Scientology.

Overview
NLP participants are taught that the human mind can be programmed, and that mis-programming by negative input is the norm. Like Scientology, rebirthing and other alternative therapies (Raso 1994)(Lilienfeld 2003) NLP embraces this Null Hypothesis and the classic New Age concept of "clearing" these blocks (Singer 1996). While the more traditional therapies concentrate on solving problems by focusing on the reasons 'why' (Singer 1996), Neurolinguistic programming looks at the 'hows' to provide a quick fix to a solution.

NLP is widely promoted through the popular psychology, self development, and New Age sections of bookshops, and advertised in various media including the Internet and infomercials.

Foundational Assumptions
Distinct from its formal presuppositions, NLP incorporates a variety of foundational assumptions that precede the presuppositions. These are:


 * 1) There is a mind-body (and some also include spirituality) connection.
 * 2) The mind is broadly composed of a conscious and a subconscious (or unconscious) component.
 * 3) A person's experience of the world is processed and organized exclusively in terms of the five senses
 * 4) Physiology, sensory representation ("submodality") and emotion comprise internal state.
 * 5) Behavior is the result of systematically ordered sequences of sensory representations ("strategies").
 * 6) All behavior occurs in the context of internal state.
 * 7) Internal state mediates experience and influences or determines behavior.
 * 8) Internal state and strategy -- hence behavior -- have a discernible and communicable structure.
 * 9) People exhibit their internal state in their language (verbal and non-verbal).
 * 10) Since behavior and its substrates -- internal state and strategy -- can be codified, a person's skill can be reproduced in another person.
 * 11) Behavior is learned.
 * 12) Direct and objective knowledge of the (external) world is not possible.

NLP and Theory
Many NLP proponents state that NLP is not theory-oriented, and Bandler states that he does not "do theory". Instead, the stated goals of NLP are to model effective patterns "in the field", to learn what someone is actually doing in practice (internally and externally) that works, and how they do it, rather than deriving behaviors from a theory or obtaining their motivations for doing them. However, NLP proponents do make hypotheses and propose armchair theories. For example, NLP assumes that all human behaviour is neurological, and all human behaviour is based on the 5 senses, rather than attitudes, reason, emotions, mind, morals or ego.

Common techniques and practices

 * Meta model: questions to recover distortion, generalisation and deletion from a speaker ).
 * Representational systems: verbal and non-verbal cues such as eye movements, sensory predicates, breathing rate, and body posture are calibrated to identify the modality, type and sequence of internal Visual, Auditory or Kinesthetic representations.
 * Perceptual positions: a situation is considered from different points of view of those involved, typically self, other, and neutral observer.
 * Dilts' Neurological Levels of Learning: categorisation of information into a hierarchies consisting of environment, behavior, competency, belief/value, identity and purpose (or spirit).
 * Swish: a basic "quick-fix" technique that involves swapping a representation of a simple habit for desired self-image in the future.
 * Visual / Kinesthetic dissociation: separates the see-feel synaesthesia that drives reponses to a stimulus. The NLP "phobia cure" uses two place dissociation
 * Rapport: pacing and leading attention by matching, mirroring or cross pacing verbal and non-verbal behavior such as breathing, sensory predicates, and gestures.
 * Submodality modification: deliberately altering the coding of internal sensory representations such as location, size and brightness of internal images (S & C Andreas 1987)

NLP Modeling
NLP modeling is a method that is promoted for duplicating behaviour, expertise or excellence, or reproducing "magic" abilites of experts. It is considered by some practitioners to be at the heart of NLP. It can be thought of as the process of discovering relevant distinctions within these experiential components, as well as sequencing these components, aiming to achieve a specific result. NLP proponents claim that it is used to discover and codify patterns of excellence as demonstrated consistently by top performers in any field. It has also been applied to clinical conditions, such as the "skill" of schizophrenia and notable dead people of whom we have only writings, such as Jesus of Nazareth. It has been argued that modeling from writings is unverifiable (both within and outside NLP).

Presuppositions
The presuppositions of NLP are sometimes described as an epistemology. A presupposition (linguistic term) is a background belief that is treated by the NLP practitioner "as if" it were literally true.

The fundamental presuppositions in NLP are:
 * The map is not the territory.  "NLP epistemology" follows Alfred Korzybski (1933) and Gregory Bateson's (1972, 1979) postulations that there is no such thing as " objective experience". The subjective nature of our experience never fully captures the objective world. It is assumed that each of us creates a representation of the world in which we live - that is, we create a map or model which we use to generate our behavior. Our representation or map of the world determines to a large degree what our experience of the world will be.
 * Life and 'Mind' are Systemic Processes. The processes that take place within a human being and between human beings and their environment are systemic . Our bodies, our societies, and our planet form an ecology of complex systems and sub-systems all of which interact with and mutually influence each other. This assumes that looking from different vantage points may result in quite different and yet equally valid descriptions and emphasis of what is important in the system.

These presuppositions are considered groundbreaking by NLP proponents because of a contradiction with the modern scientific Aristotelian view that reality can be objectively measured, and the psychoanalyst view is that the presuppositions upon which NLP are founded are not valid (Strean 1995),

The other commonly related presuppositions are derived from the these two fundamental presuppositions.

The B.A.G.E.L. Model
The B.A.G.E.L. Model specifies the five elements (in mnemonic form) that purportedly comprise the behavioral cues that indicate an individual's internal processes. The B.A.G.E.L. Model is predicated on the notion that internal processes are subjectively represented in sensory terms: visually, auditory, kinesthetically and least likely, olfactory and gustatory. 
 * 1) Body posture (eg. leaning back, head upwards and shallow breathing indicates visual representation)
 * 2) Accessing cues (eg. fluctuating voice tone and tempo indicates auditory representation)
 * 3) Gestures (eg. gesturing below the neck indicates kinesthetic representation)
 * 4) Eye movements (See Eye accessing cues and the representational systems below)
 * 5) Language patterns (specifically sensory based, eg. "I see!", "Sounds right!" or "I feel that...")

Eye accessing cues, body cues, and NLP representational systems


A core NLP training exercise involves learning to calibrate eye movements patterns with internal representations ;. According to NLP developers, this core tennet loosely relates to the VAK guidelines below. See chart :


 * Visual: eyes up to left or right according to dominant hemisphere access; high or shallow breathing; muscle tension in neck; high pitched/nasal voice tone; phrases such as “I can imagine the big picture”.
 * Auditory: eyes left or right; even breathing from diaphragm; even or rhythmic muscle tension; clear midrange voice tone, sometimes tapping or whistling; phrases such as “Let's tone down the discussion”.
 * Kinesthetic: eyes down left or right; belly breathing and sighing; relaxed musculature; slow voice tone with long pauses; phrases such as “I can grasp a hold of it”

NLP theory explains these breathing and mental processing according to the varying levels of chemical composition in the blood that affects the brain, and “Visual” people tend to be fast visual thinkers and can seem untrustworthy to “kinesthetic” thinkers because thinking by feeling is inherently slow. It is further claimed that matching VAK predicates can build rapport with individuals. Some authors use internal Verbal/Auditory/Kinesthetic strategies in order to categorize people within a thinking strategies or learning styles framework for instance, that there exist visual, kinesthetic or auditory types of manager.

Meta-model and Milton Model
The meta-model is a set of thirteen language patterns  developed from their observations of Virginia Satir and Fritz Perls, and is proposed as an information gathering tool, and to challenge (theoretical) distortions, generalizations or deletions in the speaker's language. The meta-model can be reduced to the asking "What specifically", or "How specifically?" to clarify unspecified syntactic elements.

The meta-model involves the identification of the abandoned theoretical concepts of Chomsky's transformational grammar. These are distortions, generalizations, and deletions. However, in contrast with Chomsky's abandoned theory and with linguistics theory, distortions, generalizations and deletions are universals according to NLP, and are applied directly from untested theory to empirically untested application Levelt (1995).

The inverse of the meta-model is the Milton-model a collection of "artfully vague" language patterns  elicited from the work of Milton H. Erickson. It is said that the use of non-specific language patterns can allow the client to make their own meaning for what is being said.

Meaning of "Neuro" in NLP


All NLP literature refers to the altering of one's neurology through the neural pathways of the senses and the neural circuits of the brain. Most current NLP literature mentions no more than the reprogramming of mental habits and associations. However, the Engram is used within NLP to explain how NLP works . Some practitioners theorize that NLP processes can be explained through the neurological concepts of programming and reprogramming engrams Extract. Within NLP, Engrams are proposed to give a patterned response which has been stabilized at the level of unconscious competence.

Brain lateralization
Hemispheric differences (brain lateralization) is used to support assumptions in some versions of NLP. Robert Dilts propose eye movements (and sometimes gestures) correspond to visual/auditory/ kinesthetic representations systems and to the specific regions in the brain. For example, the left side is said to be more logical/analytical than the right side, which is said to be more creative/imaginative or that regions of the brian are specialised for certain functions such as mathematics or language.

NLP Models
Aside from the fundamental Metamodel, Milton Model, and Representational Systems, NLP proponents also did research in beliefs, meta programs, the George A. Miller's T.O.T.E. model. Longstanding practitioners Robert Dilts and Judith Delozier claim that the SMART model, amongst others are also part of NLP.

New Age
NLP is largely a New Age development, and is often promoted in combination with other related new age developments. This is partly due to related New Age notions that were common at the time of development, such as Dianetics promoted by Perls and the enneagram promoted by Virginia Satir (REF) and also a result of practitioners modeling spiritual concepts. Bandler often used anecdotes and metaphors about the occult in his workshops and large group awareness training LGAT seminars and teaches workshops in practical shamanism. Some practioners claim that NLP can be used to “create both positive (+) and negative (-) psychic energy which operate at polar opposites from each other”.

Alternate Brands
Individual trainers have often introduced or idiosyncratically developed their own methods, concepts and labels, branding them under the "NLP" name :


 * John Grinder teaches New Code of NLP
 * Anthony Robbins teaches NAC (Neuro Associative ConditioningTM)
 * Michael Hall teaches Neuro SemanticsTM
 * Tad James teaches Advanced Neuro DynamicsTM & Time Line TherapyTM
 * Richard Bandler himself now teaches his own offshoot of NLP, called DHE (Design Human EngineeringTM)
 * Margo Anand promotes a form of NLP called SkyDancing TantraTM

Background
One of the earliest influences on NLP were General Semantics (Alfred Korzybski) as a new perspective for looking at the world which included a kind of mental hygiene. This was a departure from the Aristotelian concepts of modern science and objective reality, and it influenced notions of programming the mind. Korzybski General semantics influenced several schools of thought, leading to a viable human potential industry and associations with emerging New Age thinking. By the late 1960s, self-help organizations such as EST, Dianetics, and Scientology had become financially successful. The Esalen human potential seminars in California began to attract people, such as the therapist and dianetics proponent Fritz Perls, as well as Gregory Bateson, Virginia Satir, and Milton H. Erickson.

While at Kresge College, University of California, Santa Cruz, John Grinder then an Assistant Professor of linguistics was invited by Richard Bandler, then a fourth year undergraduate student to visit his Gestalt therapy group. Between 1973-1979, under the mentorship of Gregory Bateson, the co-founders collaborated, and published several books including The Structure of Magic Volumes I & II (1975, 1975a), Changing with families and Patterns of the Hypnotic Techniques of Milton H. Erickson, Volumes I & II (1977, 1978) based on the patterns of Fritz Perls, Virginia Satir, Milton H. Erickson.

The practice of neuro-linguistic programming attracted mostly therapists at first although it eventually attracted business people, sales people, artists, and "new-agers". As it expanded, Leslie Cameron-Bandler, Judith DeLozier, Stephen Gilligan, Robert Dilts, and David Gordon (Therapeutic Metaphors, 1978) made further contributions to NLP and the seminars of Bandler and Grinder were transcribed by Steve Andreas into a book, Frogs into Princes. This was published in 1979 and drove the demand for seminars which in turn became successful human potential attractions.

Since the mid 1990s NLP has become more widespread, and following the example of Richard Bandler (who attempted legal action to claim the bulk of the field as his own personal intellectual and commercial property because he could not resolve the dispute through the use of NLP . The dispute between Bandler and Grinder over trademarks and copyright was resolved in court of California in 2000 who deemed NLP a generic term.

Applications
Much of NLP is now largely targeted for niche markets (particularly commercialized, cut down or self-help usage), and may be more controversial or esoteric, sometimes charismatically or evangelistically taught. Some of the original developers, notably Richard Bandler and the stage hypnotist Paul McKenna, have encouraged these trends and the resulting fragmentation and move towards "pop NLP" has discredited the subject in the eyes of many people.

NLP is sometimes applied to coaching and for personal or business development, including motivational communication and systems thinking. NLP is often promoted as large group seminars, similar to or in combination with Landmark Forum seminars.

Some of these involve day long, or several day periods of large group awareness activities including the introduction of authority figure guest speakers and promotion of New Age products. For example, Anthony Robbins promotes NLP as a "systemic approach for change" through his seminars, and other products. NLP trainers and consultants are now applying NLP rituals and techniques in some HR application areas.

NLP "Therapy"
NLP is considered a fringe or alternative therapy. Although several aspects of NLP have been found to be largely ineffective, NLP is used, or suggested as an approach, by a few mental health bodies, including the National Phobics Society of Great Britain , MIND  (PDF), , the British Stammering Association  , the Center for Development & Disability at the University of New Mexico Center for autism ,. Around 1978, NLP practitioner certification was set up as a 20 day program with the aim of training therapists to apply NLP as an adjunct to their professional qualifications. In Europe, the European NLP therapy association has been promoting their training in line with European therapy standards.

New Age and Occult Applications
NLP's New Age background, deriving from such notions as Zen spirituality and Dianetics promoted by Perls and the enneagram promoted by Virginia Satir (REF) and the modeling spiritual concepts, has led to variability in the use of occult notions in NLP. For example, Bandler often used anecdotes and metaphors about the occult in his workshops and large group awareness training LGAT seminars and teaches workshops in practical shamanism. Proponents state that NLP is compatible with any religion or spiritual context.

Scientific analysis of NLP
NLP has been empirically tested over many years and many of its models and methods have been found to be largely ineffective.

In relation to current understanding of neurology and perception, NLP is in error (Bertelsen, 1987), and instead of being grounded in contemporary, scientifically derived neurological theory, NLP is based on outdated metaphors of brain functioning and is laced with numerous factual errors (Druckman and Swets 1988).

The 1988 US National Committee (a board of 14 prepared scientific experts) report found that "Individually, and as a group, these studies fail to provide an empirical base of support for NLP assumptions...or NLP effectiveness. The committee cannot recommend the employment of such an unvalidated technique". In addition, Edgar Johnson, technical director of the Army Research Institute heading the NLP focused Project Jedi stated that "Lots of data shows that NLP doesn't work". NLP has failed to yield convincing evidence for the NLP model, and failed to provide evidence for its effectiveness.

The conjecture that a person has a preferred representational system (PRS), which is observed in the choice of words, has been found to be false according to rigorous research reviews. The assertion that a person has a PRS which can be determined by the direction of eye movements found even less support.

A single critique by Einspruch and Forman (1985) stated that Sharpley's review of NLP contained methodological errors. However, Sharpley refuted this and provided further experimental evidence to demonstrate that NLP is ineffective and in error in both method and model.

Thus, objective empirical studies and review papers  have consistently shown NLP to be ineffective and reviews or meta-analysis have given NLP a conclusively negative assessment, and the reiterated statement is that there is no neuro-scientific basis for any of NLP's claims, or any scientific support for its claimed efficacy.

Due to general disillusionment with NLP, its mention in psychotherapy journals and books is becoming increasingly rare. NLP proponents have provided not one iota of scientific support for their claims, and as such NLP is considered inappropriate for thorough clinical studies.

Professor Robert Carrol states that it is impossible to determine a "correct" NLP model, and that applying one particular model to everyone is over-simplistic and will be no substitute for hard earned expertise and cannot be verified through statistical methods.

The fact that some people perceive NLP to work sometimes can be explained by the placebo effect, social pressure, superficial symptomatic rather than core treatment, and overestimating some apparent successes while ignoring, downplaying, or explaining away failures.

Criticism
Critics say NLP is simply a half-baked conflation of pop psychology and pseudoscience that uses jargon to disguise the fact that it is based on a set of banal, if not incorrect, presuppositions (Sanghera 2005). NLP has been criticized by clinical psychologists, management scholars, linguists, psychotherapists and cult awareness groups, concerning ineffectiveness, pseudoscientific explanation of linguistics and neurology, ethically questionable, cult-like characteristics, and promotion by exaggerated claims.

False claims to science
Critics say that NLP often associates itself with "science of communication" in order to raise its own prestige  and anthropologists such as Winkin  consider such promotion to be intellectually fraudulent. Furthermore, some critics assert that NLP's association with science is as distant as astrology's association to astronomy.

As with any other science, theory is central to behavioral science. However, Gregory Bateson in page ix of the Structure of Magic Volume I claims that, "The behavioral sciences, and especially psychiatry, have always avoided theory..." . The co-originators have also stated, "We are not psychologists, and we're also not theologians or theoreticians". However, proponents claim that the Milton-model is based on the behavioral patterns of Milton H. Erickson and that if these patterns can be 'formalized it will make a solid foundation for a science of communication' (1977 p.81) yet Grinder & Bostic St Clair (2001) say that "the coding phase of NLP modeling is at present an art". Some proponents have marketed exaggerated claims about NLP such as false connections to neuroscience and have marketed the original developers as 'scientists'. Advertising bodies in the UK have asked for NLP proponents to avoid promoting NLP as a new science.

Psycholinguist Willem Levelt states that (translated into English) "NLP is not informed about linguistics literature, it is based on vague insights that were out of date long ago, their linguistics concepts are not properly construed or are mere fabrications, and conclusions are based upon the wrong premises. NLP theory and practice has nothing to do with neuroscientific insights or linguistics, nor with informatics or theories of programming".

Pseudoscience
NLP has been classed as a pseudoscientific self help development, in the same mold as EST (Landmark Forum) and Dianetics(Scientology). Authors such as Salerno (2005) also state NLP is pseudoscience, and have criticized its promotion as self-help, and psychologists such as Singer and management experts such as  have criticized quasi-spiritual and unethical uses within management and human resources developments. The National Council Against Health Fraud classify NLP is a "dubious therapy".

Numerous extraordinary and unsupported claims have been made by some NLP promoters. There have been claims that the hightening of perception using NLP can allow a novice martial artist to beat an expert, and that it is possible to develop photographic memory through the use of NLP.

Historically, NLP has many pseudoscientific associations such as the explicit and implicit erroneous adherence to Dianetic's subconscious engram concept, claims to rapid cures and treatment of traumas, the use of popular new age myths such as unlimited potential, left/right brain simplicities, past life regression, and the use marketing/recruitment models similar to that of Dianetics (Scientology) and other cults.

Pseudoscience is prone to certain fallacies and characteristics. These can be; Overgeneral predictions, pseudoscientific experimentation, dogmatic adherence or recycling of un-validated claims. The characteristics of pseudoscience are more specifically shown thus :


 * The use of obscurantist language (eg meta programs, parapragmatics, sub-modalities etc)
 * The absence of connectivity
 * Over-reliance on testimonial and anecdotal evidence
 * An overuse of ad hoc hypotheses and reversed burden of proof designed to immunize claims from falsification
 * Emphasis on confirmation rather than refutation (eg reliance on asking how rather than why)
 * Absence of boundary conditions
 * The mantra of holism and eclecticism designed to immunize from verifiable efficacy (Claiming that NLP is unmeasurable due to too many factors or to simplistically “do what works”.
 * Evasion of peer review (If claims were true, why were they not properly documented and presented to the scientific community?)
 * Reversed burden of proof (away from those making claim (NLP promoters), and towards those testing the claim (Scientists)).

Pseudoscientific arguments tend to contain several or all of these factors, as can be seen in this example that shows ad hoc hypotheses and holistic argument as an attempt to explain away the negative findings, and an emphasis on confirmation and reversed burden of proof etc.

Critics point of that NLP is based on outdated metaphors of brain functioning and is laced with numerous factual errors. Modern neuroscience indicates that NLP's notions of neurology are erroneous and pseudoscientific in regards to: left/right brain hemispheric differences, the association of eye movements or body gestures to brain hemispheres, and in the universal division of humanity to 40% visual, 40% auditory and 20% kinesthetic , in the adherence of NLP to positive/negative and psychic out of body energy. NLP is also based on some of Freud's most flawed and pseudoscientific thinking that has been rejected by the mainstream psychology community for decades.

Ethical Concerns
Ethical concerns of NLP’s encouragement towards manipulation have been raised. As such, NLP is seen as encouraging people to find more ways to manipulate individuals against their will within seduction, sales and business settings. NLP book titles include "The Unfair Advantage in Sales" and "The Science and Technology of Getting What You Want" and “Get Anyone to Do Anything”.

The therapy and coaching fields require an ethical code of conduct (eg: Psychotherapy and Counseling Federation of Australia Ethical Guidelines). It has been found that NLP certified practitioners often show a weak grasp of ethics.

In addition, "Ethical standards bodies and other professional associations state that unless a technique, process, drug, or surgical procedure can meet requirements of clinical tests, it is ethically questionable to offer it to the public, especially if money is to change hands". NLP is also criticised for unethically encouraging the belief in non existent maladies and insecurities by otherwise normal individuals.

NLP has also been described as a "commercial cult", and has been criticised within the business sector for being coercive, including undue and forced adoption of fundamental beliefs and intense confrontational psychological techniques, tantamount to forced religious conversion. Its various forms, such as those promoted by Grinder, and Tony Robbins are said to be ill conceived and coercive in some business settings.

Questionable Applications
Currently, there is criticism from psychotherapists about the promotion of NLP and other dubious therapies within psychotherapy associations. NLP certification for therapists in general still does not require any professional qualifications.




 * Human Resources: As with other pseudoscientific subjects, human resource experts such as Von Bergen et al (1997) consider NLP to be inappropriate for management and human resource training . NLP has been found to be most ineffective concerning influence/persuasion and modeling of skills . There is a general view that NLP is dubious and is not to be taken seriously in a business context . Within management training there have also been complaints towards NLP concerning undue and forced adoption of fundamental beliefs tantamount to a forced religious conversion.

Many such courses appear to depend more upon charismatic appeal, wish-fulfillment, quick fixes, and lack of critical faculty, than actual quantifiable results, and so are often considered pure pseudoscience. The original fad of NLP has undergone further controvercy and abandonment since the further realization that it is simply a faddy cult, and the divorce of Tony Robbins despite his commercial promotion of "Perfect Marriage" counseling has led to a great deal of disenchantment from his own followers (Salerno 2005). The various claims NLP proponents make have no clinical support and are grossly missleading (Eisner 2000).


 * NLP and Education: Although NLP has no reliable neuroscience foundation, it is sometimes considered as part of "accelerated learning" or "brain based learning"PDF. There is no reliable evidence to support the use of NLP within education, and as such, the use of this unvalidated method is discouraged by educational experts (REF).


 * Cosmetic Effect Claims: Dubious treatments such as hypnotic breast enhancement and penis enlargement often claim to use NLP processes to produce this effect (REF).  If such miraculous effects had actually been achieved, then why have they not been properly documented by the people making these claims, and presented to the scientific community?.


 * Occult and New Age Practices: With its promotion with Tai Chi, Meditation, and Dianetics (Scientology), NLP is in the margins of contemporary obscurantism . NLP is often criticised as being a dubious new age therapy. Practitioners sometimes attempt to model spiritual experiences, which inherently, are lacking in scientific support. NLP's new age background often leads to it being sold in combination with shamanic methods of magic such as those by (by Richard Bandler) or Huna (by Tad James).

Cult characteristics
NLP is sometimes referred to in scientific research reviews as a cult, and a destructive or amoral pseudoscientific psychocult (eg. NLP Rekaunt), and in research it is often considered to be akin to a cult. The German educational ministry banned the use of NLP in education due to its close similarity to Scientology. Bandler's legal actions have been compared to the vexatious litigation and restriction in freedom of speech of cults such as Scientology.

Similar to other pseudoscientific subjects such as Dianetics (Scientology) and EST(Landmark), NLP is adopted as a pretext for applying ritual, authority control, dissociation, reduced rationalization, and social pressure to obtain compliance from the cult's victim or to induce dependence on the cult. For example, the belief in the ubiquity of bad programming (dianetic's engram concept is widely disseminated in NLP books and seminars. Thus, although NLP is ineffective for its stated purposes, it is used as a fake science in a similar way to other psuedoscientific therapies such as primal scream therapy, EST and Dianetics.

Notes and references

 * Bandler, Richard & John Grinder, 1975. The Structure of Magic I: A Book About Language and Therapy. Palo Alto, CA: Science & Behavior Books.
 * Bandler, Richard & John Grinder, 1975. The Structure of Magic II: A Book About Communication and Change. Palo Alto, CA: Science & Behavior Books.
 * Above source, see pp.12-13,137,179-99.
 * Richard Bandler & John Grinder, 1976. Patterns of the Hypnotic Techniques of Milton H. Erickson, M.D. Volume I. Cupertino, CA :Meta Publications.
 * Bandler, Richard, Grinder, John & DeLozier, Judith, 1977. Patterns of the Hypnotic Techniques of Milton H. Erickson, M.D. Volume II. Meta Publications.
 * Richard Bandler & John Grinder, 1979. Frogs into Princes: Neuro Linguistic Programming. Moab, UT: Real People Press.
 * Above source, pg 30.
 * Above source, pg 24.
 * Above source, pgs 15 and 45.
 * Above source, pg 52.
 * Bandler, Richard & John Grinder, 1983. Reframing: Neurolinguistic programming and the transformation of meaning Moab, UT: Real People Press.
 * Bandler, Richard 1993. unknown.
 * Bandler, Richard & John Grinder, 1985. Using your brain - for a change. Palo Alto, CA: Science & Behavior Books.
 * Gregory Bateson, 1972. Steps to an Ecology of Mind: Collected Essays in Anthropology, Psychiatry, Evolution, and Epistemology University Of Chicago Press.
 * Bateson, Gregory, 1979. Mind and Nature: A Necessary Unity (Advances in Systems Theory, Complexity, and the Human Sciences). Hampton Press.
 * Beyerstein. B.L. (1997) Why Bogus Therapies Seem to Work. Skeptical Inquirer magazine.  September/October 1997
 * NLP for business success, Bradbury, A. Kogan Page, 1997.
 * Derks, L. & Goldblatt, R.,(1985) The Feedforward Conception of Consciousness: A Bridge between Therapeutic Practice and Experimental Psychology. The William James Foundation, Amsterdam.
 * Above source, pg 75.
 * Above source, pg 383.
 * Above source, pg 792
 * Above source, pg 938-943
 * Above source, pg 1003.
 * Above source, pg 1300.
 * Above source, pg 1303.
 * Neuro-Linguistic Programming: Volume I - The Study of the Structure of Subjective Experience; Dilts, Robert B, Grinder, John, Bandler, Richard & DeLozier, Judith A. Meta Publications, 1980.
 * Above source, pgs 3-4.
 * Above source, pg 4.
 * Above source, pg 6.
 * Above source, pg 14.
 * Above source, pg 17.
 * Tools of the spirit; Dilts, Robert B, McDonald, Robert. NLP University Press, 1997.
 * Tools for Dreamers: Strategies for Creativity;Dilts, Robert B, Todd Epstein, Robert W Dilts. Palo Alto, CA: Meta Publications, 1991.
 * Modeling With NLP, Dilts, Robert B. Palo Alto, CA: Meta Publications, 1998.
 * Cognitive Patterns of Jesus of Nazareth, Robert B Dilts. Ben Lomond, CA: Dynamic Learning Publications, 1992.
 * Retrieved 25 Aug 2005
 * Dryden. W. 2001 Reason to Change: Rational Emotive Behaviour Therapy (REBT) Brunner-Routledge 0415229804
 * Language, structure, and change: frameworks of meaning in psychotherapy, Efran, J S. Lukens M.D. Published by W.W. Norton, New York, 1990.
 * Eisner, D. A. (2000). The death of psychotherapy: From Freud to alien abductions. Westport, CT: Praeger.
 * Paul Ekman Crime Uncovered: You've got the look: Would you lie to me? The Observer, London (UK): Sunday, April 27, 2003 p.58
 * The Spirit of NLP, Hall, M. Crown House Publishing, 2001.
 * The Sourcebook of Magic; Hall, L Michael & Barbara P Belnap. Carmarthen, UK: Crown House Publishing, 1999.
 * Meta-States: Reflexivity in Human States of Consciousness, Michael L. Hall. CET Publications, Grand Junction, CO., 1994.
 * Hardiman (1994) NLP background and issues. Industrial relations review and report No 560 May
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 * Heap, M. (1989) Neurolinguistic programming: What is the evidence?  In D Waxman D. Pederson. I,
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 * Schacter.D (1997) Searching for Memory: The Brain, the Mind, and the Past. Publisher: Basic Books;  ISBN 0465075525
 * Research Findings on Neurolinguistic Programming: Nonsupportive Data or an Untestable Theory, Sharpley C.F. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 1987 Vol. 34, No. 1, 103-107 Abstract
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 * Above source
 * Sala, S.D, editor (1999) Mind Myths. Exploring Popular Assumptions About the Mind and Brain. Wiley.
 * Salerno, S (2005); Sham : How the Self-Help Movement Made America Helpless.  Crown Publishers ISBN 1400054095
 * Look into my eyes and tell me I'm learning not to be a loser, Financial Times, London (UK), Sanghera. [url=http://news.ft.com/cms/s/770f7e96-15cd-11da-8085-00000e2511c8.html]
 * Schacter.D (1997) Searching for Memory: The Brain, the Mind, and the Past. Publisher: Basic Books;  ISBN 0465075525
 * Research Findings on Neurolinguistic Programming: Nonsupportive Data or an Untestable Theory, Sharpley C.F. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 1987 Vol. 34, No. 1, 103-107 Abstract
 * Squires. S. (1988) The Pentagon's Twilight Zone. The Washington Post.  Washington, D.C. : Apr 17, 1988
 * Review
 * (see Reviews, Excerpts) Retrieved 25 Aug 2005
 * Strean, H. (1995) PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORY. Kegan Page Publishers
 * Summers, Lynn. (Jan 1996) Training & Development. Alexandria, VA: American Society for Training & Development: Vol. 50, Iss. 1; pg. 30, 2 pgs
 * Retrieved 28 Aug 2005
 * Vaihinger, H. (1924). The Philosophy of "As If.", Routledge, Kegan and Paul Ltd, London, England
 * (NOTE: Abstract No longer indexed in APA/Psychinfo)
 * Walberg H.J. (2003) Improving Educational Productivity. Laboratory for Student Success.  LSS.
 * Williams, W F. general editor. (2000) Encyclopedia of pseudoscience: From alien abductions to Zone Therapy, Publisher: Facts On File, New York.
 * Winkin Y 1990 Eléments pour un procès de la P.N.L., MédiAnalyses, no. 7, septembre, 1990, pp. 43-50.
 * Winn, C.M, and Wiggins,A.W (2001) Quantum Leaps, in the wrong direction: Where real science ends and pseudoscience begins. Joseph Henry Press.
 * Walberg H.J. (2003) Improving Educational Productivity. Laboratory for Student Success.  LSS.
 * Williams, W F. general editor. (2000) Encyclopedia of pseudoscience: From alien abductions to Zone Therapy, Publisher: Facts On File, New York.
 * Winkin Y 1990 Eléments pour un procès de la P.N.L., MédiAnalyses, no. 7, septembre, 1990, pp. 43-50.
 * Winn, C.M, and Wiggins,A.W (2001) Quantum Leaps, in the wrong direction: Where real science ends and pseudoscience begins. Joseph Henry Press.

-	*Barrett, D. (1997) Sects, Cults and Alternative Religions: A World Survey and Sourcebook. Pub Blandford.

-	*Bördlein, Christoph (2001). Das "Neurolinguistische Programmieren" (NLP) - Hochwirksame Techniken oder haltlose Behauptungen? Schulheft, 103, 117-129.

*Brothers B.J. (1992) Spirituality and couples : heart and soul in the therapy process New York : Haworth Press. -	*Bunge, M. (1993). Realism and Antirealism in Social Science, Theory and Decision (Historical Archive), Volume 35, Number 3, Pages 207-235, Springer Science+Business

-	*Christopher, P. (2004) New Religions: A Guide : New Religious Movements, Sects and Alternative Spiritualities. Oxford University Press ISBN: 0195220420

See about Vexen Crabtree Retrieved 28 Aug 2005
 * Crabtree, Vexen (2002). Ritual Mind Control Tactics. Retrieved August 28, 2005.

-	*Derks and Hollander (1998) Systemic Voodoo. ISBN 1907388896

-	* Gallo, F, (1998) Energy Psychology Norton and Company publishers. -	*	 -	*Griffin, N., & Goldsmith, L. (1985, March). The charismatic kid: Tony Robbins, 25, gets rich peddling a hot self-help program. Life, 8, 41-46. -	*
 * Gallo, F, (2001) Energy Psychology in Psychotherapy. Norton and Company publishers.


 * Howell, Tom (2001). Cults and Small Religions. Retrieved August 29, 2005.


 * James T, Shephard. D, (2001) Presenting Magically: Transforming Your Stage Presence with NLP Crown House Publishing ISBN 1899836527

-	*Lakin, D. (2000) The Unfair Advantage: Sell with NLP! (Paperback) Lakin Associates ISBN: 0967916208 -	*Leikind, B. J., & McCarthy, W. J. (1991). An investigation of firewalking. In K. Frazier (Ed.)., The hundredth monkey and other paradigms of the paranormal (pp.182-193). Buffalo, NY


 * Overdurf, J, Silverthorn, J (1995) Training Trances: Multi-Level Communication in Therapy and Training Metamorphous Press; 3rd edition ISBN: 1555520693

Developers
(*)Grinder & Bandler are considered the co-creators/co-originators of NLP.
 * Richard Bandler*
 * John Grinder*
 * Robert Dilts
 * Leslie Cameron-Bandler
 * Judith DeLozier
 * Stephen Gilligan
 * David Gordon