Human bonding

The term 'human bond', or more generally human bonding, refers to the process or formation of a close personal relationship, as between a mother and child, especially through frequent or constant association. The word bond derives from the 12th century Middle English word band, meaning something that binds, ties, or restrains. Its application to interpersonal human relationships has been used intermittently ever since. For example, in 1809 Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, in his classic novella Elective Affinities, speaks of the marriage tie and by analogy shows how strong marriage unions are similar in character to that by which the particles of quicksilver find a unity together thought the process of chemical affinity.

The concept of nuclear family or bonded unit of two parents plus one or more children was coined by American anthropologist George Murdock in his 1949 work Social Structure. According to Merriam-Webster, the application of the term “bonding” to interpersonal relationships came of use in 1976.

Bond varieties
The term “bonding” applies aptly to all variations of connections within interpersonal relationships, social networks, economic nexuses, political ties, etc. The term male bonding refers to bonding between males through shared activities excluding females or the formation of a close personal relationship between men; for example: "the rituals known as male bonding do not necessarily involve drinking beer together". The analog concept female bonding, although less frequently used, refers to the formation of a close personal relationship between women.

The familial bond defines as a uniting force, tie, or link between related family members. A related concept is bondage, being the tenure of service of a villager, serf, or slave and generally refers to a state of being bound by compulsion as via law or mastery; a bondmaid is a woman servant, a bondman is a male servant, and a bondsman is a person who provides bonds or surety for another. In the 14th century, a bondwoman was considered a female slave. The distinction is that "bonding" almost always implies a voluntary act, of entering in or remaining in relationship from a wish to do so.

A comparable analog is labor union, originating in 1866, being an organization of united workers formed for the purpose of advancing its members’ interests in respect to wages, benefits, and working conditions. The cohesion of the group is facilitated by the exchange of union dues for benefits. By uniting, the bonded group has more leverage than as compared to a collection of separate individuals.

Similar to the marriage bond, is concept of civil union. A civil union is one of several terms for a civil status similar to marriage, typically created for the purposes of allowing same-sex couples access to the benefits enjoyed by married opposite-sex peoples (see also same-sex marriage); it can also be used by opposite-sex couples who do not prefer to enter into the legal institution of marriage but who would rather be in a union more similar to a common-law marriage.

Bond distinctions
A common division when referring to the structural integrity of relationships or unions is to divide such bonds via a physical and a neurological component, which may or may not co-occur, i.e. into:


 * 1) physical bond – two people bonded owing to physical adhesion.
 * 2) neurological bond – two people bonded owing to neurological adhesion.

The physical bond is typically sexual in nature, i.e. a sexual bond, although it may refer to individuals bonded by proximity as neighbors or by blood as siblings. People bonded physically typically have a visceral connection, either via pheromone exchange, visual attraction, hormonal adhesion, etc. The neurological bond covers all varieties of mental attachment, as psychological bonds, intellectual bonds, emotional bonds, financial bonds, synergistic bonds, altruistic bonds, etc.

As an example, in the 2006 National Geographic article “Love the Chemical Reaction” photo journalist Lauren Slater asks: “Does passion necessarily diminish over time? Can a marriage be good when Eros is replaced with friendship, or even economic partnership, two people bound by bank accounts?” Referring to her eight-year marriage, she states: “The ties that bind have been frayed by money and mortgages and children, those little imps who somehow manage to tighten the knot while weakening its actual fibers.”

Similarly, in 1939 psychologist Godfrey Thomson, in his Factorial Analysis of Human Ability, posited theoretical “bonds” of intelligence which function in loving relationships. In Sternberg’s 1986 Triangular Theory of Love, he defined Thomson’s theory as a structural model of love where we might conceptualize love in terms of feelings that, when sampled together, yield the composite experience that we label love. Here, the composite is not an undifferentiated unity; rather, it can be decomposed into a large number of underlying bonds that tend to co-occur in certain close relationships. With reference to the triangle theory, Sternberg relates the passion component of his triangle to the physical bond and the intimacy and decision/commitment components of the triangle to the neurological bond, both of which vary in strength and intensity throughout each stage of the relationship, i.e. dating, transition, marriage, etc.

Neurochemistry
Main bonding chemicals
 * Oxytocin [C43 H 66N12 O 12S2] – bonding molecule (hormone): high levels correlate with strong pair-bonding.
 * sometimes called the ‘cuddle chemical’.
 * levels rise during kissing and foreplay, and peak during orgasm.


 * Vasopressin – monogamy molecule (hormone)
 * responsible for creating intense loving memories during passionate situations.
 * responsible for clarity of thought and alertness during passionate situations.


 * Endorphin - calming natural pain killer
 * levels increase in response to touch, pleasing visual stimulus (as a smile), or after having positive thoughts.
 * thought to be the main attachment chemical in longterm relationships.

Related bonding chemicals
 * PEA [C 8 H 11 N] – amphetamine molecule (neurotransmitter)
 * speeds up the flow of information between nerve cells.
 * keeps one alert, confident, and ready to try something new.


 * Dopamine [C 8 H 11 NO 2 ] – desire molecule (neurotransmitter): levels increase as passion levels increase.
 * elavated levels are associated with romantic love.


 * Serotonin [C 10 H 12 N 2 O] – stability molecule (neurotransmitter)
 * DHEA [C 19 H 28 O 2 ] – most abundant hormone
 * increases sex drive and influences who one finds attractive.
 * levels increase to three to five times that of baseline before and during orgasm.


 * Prolactin – motherly hormone (stops female sex-drive)
 * Testosterone [C 19 H 28 O 2 ] – masculinization hormone (high testosterone-laden males tend to bond with high estrogen-laden females)
 * levels drop in men who are involved in long-term monogamous relationships.
 * functions as the main sex drive hormone for both men and women.


 * Estrogen – feminization hormone (high estrogen-laden females tend to bond with high testosterone-laden males)
 * Androsterone [C 19 H 30 O 2 ] – a pheromone attractor
 * Squalene [C 30 H 5 0] – a pheromone repellant (stops male courtship behavior in snakes)
 * Progesterone [C 21 H 30 O 2 ] – reverse sex-drive hormone
 * Norepinephrine [C 8 H 11 NO 3 ] - elevated levels are associated with romantic love.

Related facts
 * The ventral tegmental area and the caudate nucleus become more active when madly in love.
 * When looking at a lover’s photo the anterior cingulated cortex and the basal ganglia become more active.
 * When looking at a lover’s photo the posterior cingulated gyrus and the right pre-frontal cortex become less active.
 * During the first six months of love, serotonin levels drop to 40 percent below those in normal subjects.
 * Women are vomeronasally-attracted to men with dissimilar major histocompatibilty complexes.

Pair bond
Pair-bond, originating in 1940, is a generic term signifying a monogamous relationship or a socially monogamous relationship of either the human or animal variety, commonly used in sociobiology and evolutionary psychology.

Affectional bond
In 1969, psychologist John Bowlby developed attachment theory, and in doing so synthesized the concept of the affectional bond, sometimes referred to as the emotional bond, which is based on the universal tendency for humans to attach, i.e. to seek closeness to another person and to feel secure when that person is present. Attachment theory has its origins in the observation of and experiments with animals. Much of the early research on attachment in humans was done by John Bowlby and his associates. Bowlby proposed that babies have an inbuilt need from birth to make emotional attachments, i.e. bonds, because this increases the chances of survival by ensuring that they receive the care they need.

Limerent bond
According to limerence theory, positioned in 1979 by psychologist Dorothy Tennov, a certain percentage of couples may go through what is called a limerent reaction, in which one or both of the pair may experience state of passion mixed with continuous intrusive thinking, fear of rejection, and hope. Hence, with all human romantic relationships, one of three varieties of bonds may form, defined over a set duration of time, in relation to the experience or non-experience of limerence: The constitution of these bonds may vary over the course of the relationship, in ways that may either increase or decrease the intensity of the limerence. The basis and interesting characteristic of this delineation made by Tennov, is that based on her research and interviews with over 500 people, all human bonded relationships can be divided into three varieties being defined by the amount of limerence or non-limerence each partner contributes to the relationship.
 * 1) Affectional bond: define relationships in which neither partner is limerent.
 * 2) Limerent-Nonlimerent bond: define relationships in which one partner is limerent.
 * 3) Limerent-Limerent bond: define relationships in which both partners are limerent.

Erotic bond
In the 1988 book Love Maps psychologist John Money postulated the existence of the erotic bond. According to Money, each person is theorized to have a correlative love map based on his or her upbringing and experiences. This concept is frequently referenced in interpersonal-relationship discussions.

A love map may make note of both positive and negative factors, things that attract or repel the person whose erotic tastes are being mapped. For reasons that are not always easy to understand, one person may be attracted to people of a particular gender, people with particular physical characteristics (such as hair color), people with particular personality traits (e.g., a sardonic sense of humor), and so forth. One may also find certain characteristics so threatening or objectionable (again, for reasons that may be difficult or impossible to ascertain) that it strongly mitigates against an erotic attraction being manifested. Using this love map, a person unconsciously makes note of the personal and environmental factors that facilitate the formation of an erotic bond.

Limbic bond
In 2000, psychologists Lewis, Amini, and Lannon published their famous A General Theory of Love in which they postulated the concept of the limbic bond, which defines a bodily connection that is limbic in nature. They also refer to this bond as a mammalian bond being that mammals in contrast to reptiles have a limbic system, which is why reptiles abandon their young after birth whereas mammals do not.

In the limbic bond, a mutually synchronizing sensory exchange as bodily warmth, olfactory cues, vocal exchange, visual interactions, etc., function to keep ties or organizing sensory channels between connected individuals. These ties or bonds function to regulate those associated persons. They define this design as an open-loop regulatory system; where, as they state, adults are social animals: they continue to require a source of stabilization outside themselves. The open loop design means that in some important ways, people cannot be stable on their own; stability means finding people who regulate you well and staying near them.

Fluid bond
Fluid-bonding is the process in which both partners agree not to exchange fluids (other than saliva) with anyone for six months. At the end of six months each gets a full gauntlet including AIDS testing. If both are clean, the pair is then free to exchange fluids with the other person and the pair is then defined to be "fluid-bonded". Where there are exactly two fluid bonded partners, the term fluid monogamy is used. However, larger groups of people have been known to take part in fluid-bonded polyamorous relationships.

Societal bond
The societal bond refers to those cohesive elements and structural ties, as economic activity, unions, trade, sanctions, etc., which function to bind societies into collective units. According to encyclopedia.com, marriage functions to cement the societal bond. As they state, in many societies marriage links not just nuclear families but larger social formations as well. Some endogamous societies are divided into exogamous groups, as clans or lineages. Here, men form alliances through exchange of women, and the social organization regulates these alliances through marriage rules.

Human-animal bond

 * ''For human bonds with animals, see Animal love.

The human-animal bond can be defined as a connection between people and animals, domestic or wild; be it a cat as a pet or birds outside one’s window. Research into the nature and merit of the human animal bond began in the late 1700s when, in York, England, the Society of Friends established the York Retreat to provide humane treatment for the mentally ill. By having patients care for the many farm animals on the estate, society officials theorized that the combination of animal contact plus productive work would facilitate the patients’ rehabilitation. In the 1870s in Paris, a French surgeon had patients with neurological disorders ride horses. The patients were found to have improved their motor control and balance and were less likely to suffer bouts of depression.

In the 19th century, in Bielefeld, Germany, epileptic patients were given the proscription to spend time each day taking care of pets and dogs. The contact with the animals was found to reduce the occurrence of seizures. In 1980, a team of scientists at the University of Pennsylvania found that human to animal contact was found to reduce the physiological characteristics of stress; specifically, lowered levels of blood pressure, heart rate, respiratory rate, anxiety, and tension were all found to correlated positively with human pet bonding.

Historically, animals were domesticated for functional use; dogs for herding and tracking, and cats for killing mice or rats. Today their function is primarily a bonding function. For example, current studies show that 60-80% of dogs sleep with their owners at night in the bedroom, either in or on the bed. Moreover, in the past the majority of cats were kept outside (tomcats) whereas today most cats are kept indoors (housecats) and considered part of the family. Presently, in the US, for example, 1.2 billion animals are kept as pets, primarily for bonding purposes. In addition, as of 1995 there were over 30 research institutions looking into the potential benefits of the human animal bond.

Capture bond
Capture-bonding is a bond that in some instances develops between captor and captive, or terrorist and hostage, and is sometimes referred to as Stockholm syndrome. The term originated in the case of a Swedish woman who became so attached to one of the bank robbers who held her hostage that she broke her engagement to her former lover and remained bonded, or in bondage, to her former captor while he served time in prison.

Human bonding

 * Parenting: Attachment, Bonding and Reactive Attachment Disorder
 * Perspectives on Human Attachment: Pair Bonding Evolutionary Psychology, Vol. 1, pgs. 138-154. ISSN 14747049
 * Bonding With Your Baby source: kidshealth.org
 * Bonding Period – Parent/Infant Bonding

Human-animal bonding

 * Parrot-Human Bonding – Bonding and Overbonding Symptoms
 * Parrot-Human Bonding – Progressive Steps in the Bonding Process
 * Feline-Human Bond source: www.about.com
 * Equine Bonding Concepts

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