Pharmacology

Pharmacology (in Greek: pharmacon (&#966;&#940;&#961;&#956;&#945;&#954;&#959;&#957;) meaning drug, and logos (&#955;&#972;&#947;&#959;&#962;) meaning science) is the study of how chemical substances interact with living systems. If substances have medicinal properties, they are considered pharmaceuticals. The field encompasses drug composition and properties, interactions, toxicology, therapy, and medical applications and antipathogenic capabilities. The science is considered to have been invented by Arabic physicians in Baghdad during the Golden Age of Islam; pharmacopoeias were penned in Arabic as early as the 7th century (Amin A. Khairallah: Outline of Arabic Contributions to Medicine: Chapter X, Chemistry and Pharmacy. 1946, ).

Development of medication is a vital concern to medicine, but also has strong economical and political implications. To protect the consumer and prevent abuse, many governments regulate the manufacture, sale, and administration of medication. In the United States, the main regulatory body is the Food and Drug Administration through its publication of the USP.

Pharmacology as a science is practiced by pharmacologists. Subdisciplines are clinical pharmacology (the medical field of medication effects on humans), neuro- and psychopharmacology (effects of medication on behavior and nervous system functioning), and theoretical pharmacology.

Scientific background
The study of medicinal chemicals requires intimate knowledge of the biological system affected. With the knowledge of cell biology and biochemistry increasing, the field of pharmacology has also changed substantially. It has become possible, through molecular analysis of receptors, to design chemicals that act on specific cellular signalling or metabolic pathways by affecting sites directly on cell-surface receptors (which modulate and mediate cellular signalling pathways controlling cellular function).

A chemical has, from the pharmacological point-of-view, various properties. Pharmacokinetics describes its behaviour in the body - particularly in the blood (e.g. its half-life and volume of distribution), and pharmacodynamics relates its behaviour in the blood to its effects (desired effects or toxic side-effects).

When describing the pharmacokinetic properties of a chemical, pharmacologists are often interested in ADME:
 * Absorption - How is the medication absorbed (through the skin, the intestine, the oral mucosa)?
 * Distribution - How does it spread through the organism?
 * Metabolism - Is the medication converted chemically inside the body, and into which substances. Are these active? Could they be toxic?
 * Excretion - How is the medication eliminated (through the bile, urine, breath, skin)?

Medication is said to have a narrow or wide therapeutic index or therapeutic window. This describes the ratio of desired effect to toxic effect. A compound with a narrow therapeutic index (close to 1) exerts its desired effect at a dose close to its toxic dose. A compound with a wide therapeutic index (greater than 5) exerts its desired effect at a dose substantially below its toxic dose. Those with a narrow window are more difficult to dose and administer, and may require therapeutic drug monitoring (examples are warfarin, some antiepileptics, aminoglycoside antibiotics). Most anti-cancer drugs have a narrow therapeutic margin: toxic side-effects are almost always encountered at doses used to kill tumours.

Classification
Medication can be usually classified in various ways, e.g. by its chemical properties, mode of administration, or biological system affected. An elaborate and widely used classification system is the Anatomical Therapeutic Chemical Classification System.

For the gastrointestinal tract or digestive system

 * Upper digestive tract: antacids, reflux suppressants, antiflatulents, antidopaminergics, proton pump inhibitors, H2-receptor antagonists, cytoprotectants, prostaglandin analogues
 * Lower digestive tract: laxatives, antispasmodics, antidiarrhoeals, bile acid sequestrants, opioids

For the cardiovascular system

 * General: beta-receptor blocker, calcium channel blockers, diuretics, cardiac glycosides, antiarrhythmics, nitrate, antianginals, vasoconstrictor, vasodilator, peripheral activator
 * Affecting Blood pressure: ACE inhibitors, angiotensin receptor blockers, alpha blocker
 * Coagulation: anticoagulant, heparin, antiplatelet drug, fibrinolytic, anti-hemophilic factor, haemostatic drugs
 * Atherosclerosis/cholesterol agents: hypolipidaemic agents, statins.

For the central nervous system
hypnotic, anaesthetics, antipsychotic, antidepressant (including tricyclic antidepressants, monoamine oxidase inhibitor, lithium salt, selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor), anti-emetic, anticonvulsant and antiepileptic, anxiolytic, barbiturate, movement disorder drug, stimulant (including amphetamines), benzodiazepine, cyclopyrrolone, dopamine antagonist, antihistamine, cholinergic, anticholinergic, emetic, cannabinoids, 5-HT antagonist

For pain & consciousness (Analgesic drugs)
The main classes of painkillers are NSAIDs, opioids and various orphans such as paracetamol, tricyclic antidepressants and anticonvulsants.

For musculo-skeletal disorders
NSAIDs (including COX-2 selective inhibitors), muscle relaxant, neuromuscular drug anticholinesterase

For the eye

 * General: adrenergic neurone blocker, astringent, ocular lubricant
 * Diagnostic: topical eye anesthetics, sympathomimetics, parasympatholytics, mydriatics, cycloplegics
 * Anti-bacterial: antibiotics, topical antibiotics, sulfa drugs, aminoglycosides, fluoroquinolones
 * Anti-viral:
 * Anti-fungal: imidazoles, polyenes
 * Anti-inflammatory: NSAIDs, corticosteroids
 * Anti-allergy: mast cell inhibitors
 * Anti-glaucoma: adrenergic agonists, beta-blockers, carbonic anhydrase inhibitors/hyperosmotics, cholinergics, miotics, parasympathomimetics, prostaglandin agonists/prostaglandin inhibitors.  nitroglycerin

For the ear, nose and oropharynx
sympathomimetic, antihistamine, anticholinergic, NSAIDs, steroid, antiseptic, local anesthetic, antifungal, cerumenolytic

For the respiratory system
bronchodilator, NSAIDs, anti-allergic, antitussive, mucolytic, decongestant corticosteroid, beta-receptor antagonist, anticholinergic, steroid

For endocrine problems
androgen, antiandrogen, gonadotropin, corticosteroid, growth hormone, insulin, antidiabetic (sulfonylurea, biguanide/metformin, thiazolidinedione, insulin), thyroid hormones, antithyroid drugs, calcitonin, diphosponate, vasopressin analogues

For the reproductive system or urinary system
antifungal, alkalising agent, quinolones, antibiotic, cholinergic, anticholinergic, anticholinesterase, antispasmodic, 5-alpha reductase inhibitor, selective alpha-1 blocker, sildenafil

For contraception
contraceptive, oral contraceptives, spermicide, depot contraceptives

For obstetrics and gynaecology
NSAIDs, anticholinergic, haemostatic drug, antifibrinolytic, Hormone Replacement Therapy, bone regulator, beta-receptor agonist, follicle stimulating hormone, luteinising hormone, LHRH gamolenic acid, gonadotropin release inhibitor, progestogen, dopamine agonist, oestrogen, prostaglandin, gonadorelin, clomiphene, tamoxifen, Diethylstilbestrol

For the skin
emollient, anti-pruritic, antifungal, disinfectant, scabicide, pediculicide, tar products, vitamin A derivatives, vitamin D analogue, keratolytic, abrasive, systemic antibiotic, topical antibiotic, hormones, desloughing agent, exudate absorbent, fibrinolytic, proteolytic, sunscreen, antiperspirant, corticosteroid

For infections and infestations
antibiotic, antifungal, antileprotic, antituberculous drug, antimalarial, anthelmintic, amoebicide, antiviral, antiprotozoal, antiserum

For immunology
vaccine, immunoglobulin, immunosuppressant, interferon, monoclonal antibody

For allergic disorders
anti-allergic, antihistamine, NSAIDs

For nutrition
tonic, iron preparation, electrolyte, parenteral nutritional supplement, vitamins, anti-obesity drug, anabolic drug, haematopoietic drug, food product drug

For neoplastic disorders
cytotoxic drug, sex hormones, aromatase inhibitor, somatostatin inhibitor, recombinant interleukins, G-CSF, erythropoietin

For diagnostics
contrast media

For euthanasia
A euthanaticum is used for euthanasia and physician-assisted suicide, see also barbiturates.

Other
Zoopharmacognosy: Animal usage of drugs and non-foods.