Microaggression

The term “microaggression” was originally coined by Pierce in the 1970s in terms of racial microaggression. “The chief vehicle for proracist behaviors are microaggressions. These are subtle, stunning, often automatic, and non-verbal exchanges which are ‘put-downs’ of blacks by offenders”. Davis defined microaggressions as ”stunning, automatic acts of disregard that stem from unconscious attitudes of white superiority and constitute a verification of black inferiority. Furthermore Davis states that microaggression is enabled because “cognitive habit, history, and culture left [it] unable to hear the range of relevant voices and grapple with what reasonably might be said in the voice of discrimination’s victims”. The common currently cited definition of microaggression is put forth by Sue, D. W., Capodilupo, C. M., Torino, Bucceri, J. M., Holder, A. M. B., Nadal, K. L. & Esquilin (2007). Sue et al. report that “Microaggressions are brief and commonplace daily behavioral, or environmental indignities, whether intentional or unintentional, that communicate hostile, derogatory, or negative racial slights and insults toward people of color. Sue et al. (2007) went on to expand on the term microaggression by introducing three distinct forms of microaggression in the context of racial microaggression by referring to “microassault,” “microinsult,” and “microinvalidation”. Microassault is defined as “an explicit racial derogation characterized primarily by verbal or nonverbal attack meant to hurt the intended victim through name-calling, avoidant behavior, or purposeful discriminatory actions”. Microinsults are defined as “characterized by communications that convey rudeness and insensitivity and demean a person’s racial heritage or identity”. Finally, microinvalidation is “characterized by communications that exclude, negate, or nullify the psychological thoughts, feelings, or experiential reality of a person of color. Other marginalized groups experience microaggression. Microaggression may be perpetuated on the basis of gender, sexual orientation, and ability status.

Supporters of the theory argue that racial microaggressions are reported to be common,   including among people who think of themselves as being fair and nonracist,   and who have received multicultural training.

Microaggressions can take a number of different forms, for example, questioning the existence of racial-cultural issues, making stereotypic assumptions, and cultural insensitivity. Some other types of microaggressions that have been identified include Colorblindness (e.g., "I don't think of you as Black. You are just a normal person"), Denial of personal bias (e.g., "I'm not homophobic; I even have gay friends."), and Minimization of racial-cultural issues (e.g., "Just because you feel alone in this group doesn't mean that there's a racial issue involved."). "Colorblindness" in particular has been associated with higher levels of racism and lower levels of empathy.

Recent studies show that a wide variety of people report experiencing racial microaggressions. These include Latino American, African American,  and Asian American  people. Racial microaggressions are experienced even by professionals. Focus group based research with African American students at universities have revealed that racial microaggressions exist in both academic and social spaces in the collegiate environment. College students report that they experience racial microaggressions in their relationships with their college counselors, in classrooms, and in other training relationships.

People have expressed several ways in which they feel harmed when they receive racial microaggressions. For example, people may feel demeaned by implied messages such as, “You do not belong,” “You are abnormal,” “You are intellectually inferior,” “You cannot be trusted,” and “You are all the same.” Recipients of these messages have also reported feeling other negative consequences, including powerlessness, invisibility, pressure to comply, loss of integrity, and pressure to represent one’s group.

Some strategies have been identified that help in the difficult classroom discussions that are sometimes triggered by microaggressions. For example, students report that they do not want to be looked to as experts on race-related topics, and that they feel hindered in discussions in which others are overly worried about being perceived as being racist.

Microaggressions may play a role in unfairness in the legal system as they can influence the decisions of juries.

Other subtle types of oppression include institutional oppression and subtle decision-making biases.