Policy making

A policy is a deliberate plan of action to guide decisions and achieve rational outcome(s). The term may apply to government, private sector organizations and groups, and individuals. Presidential executive orders, corporate privacy policies, and parliamentary rules of order are all examples of policy. Policy differs from rules or law. While law can compel or prohibit behaviors (e.g. a law requiring the payment of taxes on income) policy merely guides actions toward those that are most likely to achieve a desired outcome.

Policy or policy study may also refer to the process of making important organizational decisions, including the identification of different alternatives such as programs or spending priorities, and choosing among them on the basis of the impact they will have. Policies can be understood as political, management, financial, and administrative mechanisms arranged to reach explicit goals.'''

Intended Effects
The goals of policy may vary widely according to the organization and the context in which they are made. Broadly, policies are typically instituted in order to avoid some negative effect that has been noticed in the organization, or to seek some positive benefit.

Corporate purchasing policies provide an example of how organizations attempt to avoid negative effects. Many large companies have policies that all purchases above a certain value must be performed through a purchasing process. By requiring this standard purchasing process through policy, the organization can limit waste and standardize the way purchasing is done.

The State of California provides an example of benefit-seeking policy. In recent years, the numbers of hybrid vehicles in California has increased dramatically, in part because of policy changes in Federal law that provided USD $1,500 in tax credits (since phased out) as well as the use of high-occupancy vehicle lanes to hybrid owners (no longer available for new hybrid vehicles). In this case, the organization (state and/or federal government) created an effect (increased ownership and use of hybrid cars) through policy (tax breaks, benefits).

Unintended Effects
Policies frequently have side effects or unintended consequences. Because the environments that policies seek to influence or manipulate are typically complex adaptive systems (e.g. governments, societies, large companies), making a policy change can have counterintuitive results. For example, a government may make a policy decision to raise taxes, in hopes of increasing overall tax revenue. Depending on the size of the tax increase, this may have the overall effect of reducing tax revenue by causing capital flight or by creating a rate so high, citizens are disincentivized to earn the money that is taxed. (See the Laffer curve)

The policy formulation process typically includes an attempt to assess as many areas of potential policy impact as possible, to lessen the chances that a given policy will have unexpected or unintended consequences. Because of the nature of some complex adaptive systems such as societies and governments, it may not be possible to assess all possible impacts of a given policy.

Policy cycle
In political science the policy cycle is a tool used for the analysing of the development of a policy item. It can also be referred to as a "stagist approach". One standardised version includes the following stages:


 * 1) Agenda setting (Problem identification)
 * 2) Policy formation
 * 3) Decision-making
 * 4) Policy implementation
 * 5) Policy analysis and evaluation (continue or terminate)

An eight step policy cycle is developed in detail in The Australian Policy Handbook by Peter Bridgman and Glyn Davis: (now with Catherine Althaus in its 4th edition)


 * 1) Issue identification
 * 2) Policy analysis
 * 3) Policy instrument development
 * 4) Consultation (which permeates the entire process)
 * 5) Coordination
 * 6) Decision
 * 7) Implementation
 * 8) Evaluation

The Althaus, Bridgman & Davis model is heuristic and iterative. It is intentionally normative and not meant to be diagnostic or predictive. Policy cycles are typically characterised as adopting a classical approach. Accordingly some postmodern academics challenge cyclical models as unresponsive and unrealistic, preferring systemic and more complex models.

Policy content
Policies are typically promulgated through official written documents. Policy documents often come with the endorsement or signature of the executive powers within an organization to legitimize the policy and demonstrate that it is considered in force. Such documents often have standard formats that are particular to the organization issuing the policy. While such formats differ in form, policy documents usually contain certain standard components including:
 * A purpose statement, outlining why the organization is issuing the policy, and what its desired effect or outcome of the policy should be.
 * A applicability and scope statement, describing who the policy affects and which actions are impacted by the policy.  The applicability and scope may expressly exclude certain people, organizations, or actions from the policy requirements.  Applicability and scope is used to focus the policy on only the desired targets, and avoid unintended consequences where possible.
 * An effective date which indicates when the policy comes into force. Retroactive policies are rare, but can be found.
 * A responsibilities section, indicating which parties and organizations are responsible for carrying out individual policy statements. Many policies may require the establishment of some ongoing function or action.  For example, a purchasing policy might specify that a purchasing office be created to process purchase requests, and that this office would be responsible for ongoing actions.  Responsibilities often include identification of any relevant oversight and/or governance structures.
 * Policy statements indicating the specific regulations, requirements, or modifications to organizational behavior that the policy is creating. Policy statements are extremely diverse depending on the organization and intent, and may take almost any form.

Some policies may contain additional sections, including


 * Background, indicating any reasons, history, and intent that led to the creation of the policy, which may be listed as motivating factors. This information is often quite valuable when policies must be evaluated or used in ambiguous situations, just as the intent of a law can be useful to a court when deciding a case that involves that law.
 * Definitions, providing clear and unambiguous definitions for terms and concepts found in the policy document.

Policy typology
Policy addresses the intent of the organization, whether government, business, professional, or voluntary. Policy is intended to affect the 'real' world, by guiding the decisions that are made. Whether they are formally written or not, most organizations have identified policies.-Citation Needed

Policies may be classified in many different ways. The following is a sample of several different types of policies broken down by their effect on members of the organization.

Distributive policies
Distributive policies extend goods and services to members of an organization, as well as distributing the costs of the goods/services amongst the members of the organization. Examples include government policies that impact spending for welfare, public education, highways, and public safety, or a professional organization's policy on membership training.

Regulatory policies
Regulatory policies, or mandates, limit the discretion of individuals and agencies, or otherwise compel certain types of behavior. These policies are generally thought to be best applied in situations where good behavior can be easily defined and bad behavior can be easily regulated and punished through fines or sanctions. An example of a fairly successful public regulatory policy is that of a speed limit.

Constituent policies
Constituent policies create executive power entities, or deal with laws. Constituent policies also deal with Fiscal Policy in some circumstances.-Citation Needed Noman Dhakkn

Miscellaneous policies
Policies are dynamic; they are not just static lists of goals or laws. Policy blueprints have to be implemented, often with unexpected results. Social policies are what happens 'on the ground' when they are implemented, as well as what happens at the decision making or legislative stage.

When the term policy is used, it may also refer to:
 * Official government policy (legislation or guidelines that govern how laws should be put into operation)
 * Broad ideas and goals in political manifestos and pamphlets
 * A company or organization's policy on a particular topic. For example, the equal opportunity policy of a company shows that the company aims to treat all its staff equally.

There is often a gulf between stated policy (i.e. which actions the organization intends to take) and the actions the organization actually takes. This difference is sometimes caused by political compromise over policy, while in other situations it is caused by lack of policy implementation and enforcement. Implementing policy may have unexpected results, stemming from a policy whose reach extends further than the problem it was originally crafted to address. Additionally, unpredictable results may arise from selective or idiosyncratic enforcement of policy.-Citation Needed

Types of policy include:


 * Causal (resp. non-causal)
 * Deterministic (resp. stochastic, randomized and sometimes non-deterministic)
 * Index
 * Memoryless (e.g. non-stationary)
 * Opportunistic (resp. non-opportunistic)
 * Stationary (resp. non-stationary)

These qualifiers can be combined, so for example you could have a stationary-memoryless-index policy.

Types of policy
There are a number of areas of government policy making that are of professional relevance to psychologists
 * Communications and Information Policy
 * Defence policy
 * Domestic policy
 * Economic policy
 * Education policy
 * Energy policy
 * Environmental Policy
 * Foreign policy
 * Health care policy
 * Housing policy
 * Human resource policies
 * Information policy
 * Macroeconomic policy
 * Monetary policy
 * National defense policy
 * Population policy
 * Public policy in law
 * Social policy
 * Transportation policy
 * Urban policy
 * Water policy

Policy studies

 * AARP Public Policy Institute (United States)
 * Association for Public Policy Analysis and Management
 * Global Public Policy Institute
 * National Association of Schools of Public Affairs and Administration
 * Policy Studies Organization
 * The Hoover Digest
 * Visualization of the policy cycle

Canada

 * Canadian Policy Research Networks
 * Centre for International Governance InnovationAn international research institution located in Waterloo, ON, Canada focused on developing ideas for global change.
 * Choice of Policy Instruments in Global Democracies
 * Policy.ca - Clearinghouse for Canadian Public Policy Articles, Organizations and Authors (Canada)

US

 * United States Foreign Policy
 * United States Presidential Executive Orders
 * US Department of Education Policy
 * US State Department Policy

Policy analysis and organizations

 * RAND Corporation
 * The Brookings Institute
 * Think Tank Directory. A Guide to Independent Nonprofit Public Policy Research Organizations.
 * W.E. Upjohn Institute for Employment Research

UK

 * Institute of Local Government Studies, Birmingham
 * Institute of Public Policy Research

Australia

 * Australian Policy Online
 * Centre for Policy Development, AUS
 * Eidos Institute, AUS
 * PerCapita, AUS
 * The Australia Institute, AUS

Other

 * Ethics and Public Policy Center
 * Institute for Research on Public Policy
 * Instituto de Políticas Públicas, Argentina