Macy conferences

The Macy Conferences were a set of meetings of scholars from various disciplines held in New York by the initiative of Warren McCulloch and the Macy Foundation from 1946 to 1953. The principal purpose of these series of conferences was to set the foundations for a general science of the workings of the human mind.

It was one of the first organized studies of interdisciplinarity, spawning breakthroughs in systems theory, cybernetics, and what later became known as cognitive science.

Overview
The Macy Conferences were organised by the Josiah Macy, Jr. Foundation, motivated by Lawrence K. Frank and Frank Fremont-Smith of the Macy Foundation. The participants were leading scientists from a wide range of fields. Casual recollections of several participants stress the communicative difficulties in the beginning, giving way to the gradual establishment of a common language powerful enough to communicate the intricacies of the various fields of expertise present.

The scientists participating in all or most of the conferences are known as the "core group." They include:


 * William Ross Ashby; psychiatrist and a pioneer in cybernetics
 * Gregory Bateson; anthropologist, social scientist, linguist, visual anthropologist, semiotician and cyberneticist
 * Julian Bigelow; pioneering computer engineer
 * Heinz von Foerster; biophysicist, scientist combining physics and philosophy and architect of cybernetics
 * Lawrence K. Frank; social scientist
 * Ralph W. Gerard; neurophysiologist and behavioral scientist known for his work on the nervous system, nerve metabolism, psychopharmacology, and biological basis of schizophrenia
 * Molly Harrower; pioneering clinical psychologist
 * Lawrence Kubie; psychatrist
 * Paul Lazarsfeld; sociologist and founder of Columbia University's Bureau for Applied Social Research
 * Kurt Lewin; psychologist, often regarded as the founder of social psychology
 * Warren McCulloch (chair); psychatrist, neurophysiologist and cybernetician
 * Margaret Mead; cultural anthropologist
 * John von Neumann; one of the foremost mathematicians of the 20th century
 * Walter Pitts; logician and co-author of the paper that founded neural networks
 * Arturo Rosenblueth; researcher, physician, physiologist and a pioneer of cybernetics
 * Leonard J. Savage; mathematician and statistician
 * Norbert Wiener; mathematician and founder of cybernetics

In addition to the core group several invited guests participated in the conferences. Amongst many others:
 * Max Delbrück; geneticist and biophysicist
 * Erik Erikson; developmental psychologist and psychoanalyst known for his theory on social development
 * Claude Shannon; electronic engineer and mathematician, "the father of information theory"
 * Talcott Parsons; sociologist.

Some of the researchers present at the conferences later went on to do extensive government funded research on the psychological effects of LSD, and its potential as a tool for interrogation and psychological manipulation in such projects as the CIA's MKULTRA program.

Conference topics
This is a sampling of the topics discussed each year.
 * 1946, March (NYC)
 * Self-regulating and teleological mechanisms
 * Simulated neural networks emulating the calculus of propositional logic
 * Anthropology and how computers might learn how to learn
 * Object perception's feedback mechanisms
 * Perceptual differences due to brain damage
 * Deriving ethics from science
 * Compulsive repetitive behavior


 * 1946, October (NYC)
 * Teleological mechanisms in society
 * Concepts from Gestalt psychology
 * Tactile and chemical communications among ant soldieres


 * 1947, March (NYC)
 * Child psychology


 * 1947, October (NYC)
 * The field perspective on psychology
 * Analog vs. digital approaches to psychological models


 * 1948, Spring (NYC)
 * Formation of "I" in language
 * Formal modeling applied to chicken pecking order formation


 * 1949, March (NYC)
 * Are the number of neurons and their connections sufficient to account for human capacities?
 * Memory
 * An appeal for collaboration between physics and psychology


 * 1950, March (NYC)
 * Analog vs. digital interpretations of the mind
 * Language and Shannon's information theory
 * Language, symbols and neurosis
 * Intelligibility in speech communications
 * A formal analysis of semantic redundancy in printed English


 * 1951, March (NYC)
 * Information as semantic
 * Can automatons engage in deductive logic?
 * Decision theory
 * Small group dynamics and group communications
 * The applicability of game theory to psychic motivations
 * The type of language needed to analyze language
 * Mere behavior vs. true communication
 * Is psychiatry scientific?
 * Can a mental event that creates a memory ever be unconscious?


 * 1952, March (NYC)
 * The relation of neurophysiological details to broad issues in philosophy and epistemology
 * The relation of cybernetics at the microlevel to biochemical and cellular processes
 * The complexity of organisms as a function of information
 * Humor, communication, and paradox
 * Do chess playing automatons need randomness to defeat humans?
 * Homeostasis and learning


 * 1953, April (Princeton)
 * How neural mechanisms can recognize shapes and musical chords
 * What consensus, if any, the Macy Conferences have arrived at