Reading

Reading is the process of retrieving and comprehending some form of stored information or ideas. These ideas are usually some sort of representation of language, as symbols to be examined by sight, or by touch (for example Braille). Other types of reading may not be language-based, such as music notation or pictograms. By analogy, in computer science, reading is acquiring of data from some sort of computer storage.

Overview
Reading by humans is mostly done from paper with ink, e.g. a book, magazine, newspaper, leaflet, notebook. Handwritten text may also consist of graphite from a pencil.

More recently one can read from computer displays, television, and other displays, e.g. those in devices such as mobile phones.

Short texts may be written or painted on an object. Often the text relates to the object, such as an address on an envelope, product info on packaging, some text on a traffic sign, street, etc. A slogan may be painted on a wall. A text may also be produced by arranging stones of a different color in a wall or road, etc. Short texts like these are sometimes referred to as environmental print

Sometimes text or images are in relief, with or without additionally using a color contrast, e.g. carved in stone or wood, a metal dog tag, instructions for use in relief on the plastic housing of an appliance, etc.

For handwritten text, written in large size, that can easily be erased often chalk on a blackboard is used.

A requirement for (convenient) reading is a good contrast between letters and background (depending on colors of letters and background, any pattern or image in the background, and on lighting) and a suitable font size. In the case of a computer screen, not having to scroll horizontally is important.

Human reading appears to be performed as a series of word recognition steps with saccades between them. In normal reading, humans do not actually "read" every word, but rather scan many words, filling in many words by what would logically appear there in context. This is possible because human languages show certain predictable patterns.

The process of recording information to be read later is writing. In the case of computer and microfiche storage there is the separate step of displaying the written text. For humans reading is usually faster and easier than writing.

Reading is typically an individual activity, although on occasion a person will read out loud for the benefit of other listeners. Reading aloud for one's own use, for better comprehension, is a form of intrapersonal communication. Reading to young children is a recommended way to instil language, expression, and to promote comprehension of text. Before the reintroduction of separated text (i.e. before the late Middle Ages), the ability to read silently was considered rather remarkable. See Alberto Manguel (1996) A History of Reading. New York: Viking. The relevant chapter (2) is posted on line here.

Literacy is the ability to read and write; illiteracy is usually caused by not having had the opportunity to learn these. Apart from that, sufferers of dyslexia have difficulty reading and/or writing.

For more information about acquiring reading as a skill, see Reading education.

Reading theory
The human capacity to read is accurately explained and predicted by human eye physiology and psychology. The eye is capable of taking in a certain amount of text using the vision span while fixating on the text. The sensory memory is able to hang onto the items in the vision span for a period of around 300 milliseconds. The short term memory, or working memory, can hold less material (around 4 items at a time), but for longer periods (around 30 seconds). These 4 or so items could be words, headings, or sentences, depending on the prior knowledge of the reader and the rate of reading within the well defined limits of human vision span. If the material is repeated or appropriately and meaningfully associated, it will be passed into the long term memory, which is potentially unlimited in capacity and can remain there from 10 minutes to indefinitely depending on depth of processing and subsequent recall.

Reading rates
Rates of reading include: Reading for memorization (under 100 words per minute), reading for learning (100–200 wpm), reading for comprehension (200–400 wpm), skimming (400–700 wpm), and scanning (more than 700 wpm). Specifically, normal reading involves the rates of "rauding" (or normal reading), skimming, and scanning which should be understood as having very different purposes and consequences. Reading for comprehension is the most important reading process, as it is the essence of most people’s daily reading. Skimming and scanning are sometimes useful for processing larger quantities of text superficially at a much lower level of comprehension (below 50%).

In the theoretical framework of information psychology mental power, or the capacity C of short-term memory (measured in bits of information), is the product of the individual mental speed Ck of information processing (in bit/s) - operationalized as reading rate ( see the external link below to the paper by Lehrl and Fischer (1990) ) - and the duration time D (in s) of information in short-term working memory, meaning the duration of memory span. Hence:


 * C (bit) = Ck(bit/s) &times; D (s).

Within this theoretical framework even the effects of the general intelligence factor can be understood as the channel capacity of short-term memory.

In ordinary life advice for the appropriate choice of reading rate includes; to read flexibly, to slow down when the concepts are closer together or when the material is unfamiliar, and to speed up when the material is familiar and the material is not concept rich. Speed reading courses and books often encourage the reader to continually speed up, and use comprehension tests that lead the reader to believe their comprehension is constantly improving. However, competence in reading involves the understanding that skimming and scanning are dangerous as default habits. (For an in depth explanation of speed reading, and a clarification of the concept, see the speed reading article.)

Learning to read in a language other than your native one, especially in adulthood, may be a rather different process from learning to read your native language in childhood. For this, see English as an additional language.

Proofreading is a kind of reading for the purpose of detecting typographical errors.

There are cases of very young children learning to read without having been taught, such as described in the book Learning From Children Who Read at an Early Age by Rhona Stainthorp and Diana Hughes. 

Reading age
A common test for children and adults is to ask them to read texts or words of increasing difficulty until they become unable to read or understand the words presented to them. This is used to determine what is called their reading age. For example, the average child of 10 will have a reading age of 10. But a 10-year-old child advanced in reading for his or her age may have a reading age of 12 or 13, i.e. may read to the level of the average 12- or 13-year-old. In a class of 12-year-olds of mixed ability, reading ages will typically vary from about 8 to about 16. Reading age is not simply a function of intelligence; a variety of teaching methods and practice techniques have been shown to have immediate effects on reading age. Reading ability tends not to increase after cessation of full-time education. The reading level of tabloid newspapers, although they are directed at adults, is around 9-12.

Topics in reading

 * Developmental Stages of Reading
 * Directed Reading Lesson
 * Fixation
 * Regression
 * skimming
 * Subvocalization
 * Vision span