Breast feeding



Breastfeeding is the feeding of an infant or young child with milk from a woman's breasts. Babies have a sucking reflex that enables them to suck and swallow milk.

Experimental evidence suggests that, with few exceptions, human breast milk is the best source of nourishment for human infants. Experts still disagree about how long breastfeeding should continue to gain the most benefit, and how much extra risk is involved in using breast milk substitutes.

An infant may be breastfed by its own mother or by another lactating female, a wet nurse. Breast milk may be expressed (such as with a breast pump) and fed to a baby through a bottle, and donor human milk may also be used. Breast milk substitutes are available for mothers or families who cannot or prefer not to breastfeed their children. While there are conflicting studies about the relative value of breast milk substitutes, the use of commercial infant formulas is acknowledged to be inferior to breastfeeding for both full term and premature infants. In many countries, artificial feeding is associated with a greater mortality from diarrhoea in infants but where there is clean water, many consider artificial feeding to be acceptable.

Governmental strategies and international initiatives promote breastfeeding as the best method of feeding infants in their first year and beyond. The World Health Organization (WHO) and the American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) also promote breastfeeding.

Lactation
The production, secretion and ejection of milk is called lactation. It is one of the defining features of being a mammal.

Breast milk
The exact properties of breast milk are not entirely understood, but the nutrient content of mature milk is relatively stable. Its ingredients come from the mother's food supply and the nutrients in her bloodstream at the time of feeding. If that is not enough, nutrients come from the mother's bodily stores. Some studies estimate that a woman who breastfeeds her infant exclusively uses 500–600 more calories a day just producing milk for her offspring. The exact composition of breast milk varies from day to day, and even hour to hour, depending on both the manner in which the baby nurses and the mother's food consumption and environment, so the ratio of water to fat fluctuates.

Foremilk, the milk released at the beginning of a feed, is watery, low in fat and high in carbohydrates; hindmilk, which is increasingly released as the feed progresses is creamier. There is no sharp distinction between foremilk and hindmilk, the change is very gradual. Research from Peter Hartmann's group tells us that fat content of the milk is primarily determined by the emptiness of the breast&mdash;the less milk in the breast, the higher the fat content. The breast can never be truly "emptied" since milk production is continuous.

Benefits
Breastfeeding benefits both mother and child physically and psychologically. Nutrients and antibodies are passed to the baby while hormones are released into the mother's body. The bond between baby and mother can also be strengthened during breastfeeding.

Benefits for the infant
The health benefits of breastfeeding are well documented. According to the American Academy of Pediatrics,Extensive research, especially in recent years, documents diverse and compelling advantages to infants, mothers, families, and society from breastfeeding and the use of human milk for infant feeding. These include health, nutritional, immunologic, developmental, psychological, social, economic, and environmental benefits.
 * &mdash;American Academy of Pediatrics policy statement

Breastfed babies have a lower risk of sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS) and other diseases. Suckling at the breast encourages the proper development of the infant's teeth and speech organs. Suckling also helps prevent obstructive sleep apnea. Also, breast milk is at the right temperature and is immediately available from the breast.

Breastfeeding is associated with lower risk of the following diseases:
 * 1) Allergies
 * 2) Asthma
 * 3) Autoimmune thyroid diseases
 * 4) Bacterial meningitis
 * 5) Breast cancer
 * 6) Celiac disease
 * 7) Crohn's disease
 * 8) Diabetes
 * 9) Diarrhea
 * 10) Eczema
 * 11) Gastroenteritis
 * 12) Hodgkin's lymphoma
 * 13) Necrotizing enterocolitis
 * 14) Multiple sclerosis
 * 15) Obesity
 * 16) Otitis media (ear infection)
 * 17) Respiratory infection and wheezing
 * 18) Rheumatoid arthritis
 * 19) Urinary tract infection

Breast milk has several anti-infective factors. These include the anti-malarial factor para-amino benzoic acid (PABA), the anti-amoebic factor BSSL,, lactoferrin, the second most common protein in human milk, that binds to iron and inhibits the growth of intestinal bacteria like E. coli and Salmonella, and IgA which protects breastfeeding infants from microbial infection.

Breast milk contains the right amount of the amino acids cystine, methionine and taurine that are essential for neuronal (brain and nerve) development. A New Zealand study tracking over 1000 children for 8 to 18 years found small but measurable increases in cognitive ability and education achievement. This remained even after adjusting for other factors (such as maternal education level).

One study suggests that in resource-poor settings where safe infant formula is unavailable, exclusive breastfeeding (as compared with "mixed" feeding where breastfeeding is combined with formula, solids or animal milk) may reduce the risk of HIV transmission from mother to child in infants less than 6 months old.

Unlike human milk, the predominant protein in cow's milk is beta-lactoglobulin, an important factor in cow milk allergies.

Benefits for the mother
Breastfeeding benefits the mother. It releases hormones such as oxytocin and prolactin that have been found to relax the mother and make her feel more nurturing toward her baby. Breastfeeding within a short time after giving birth increases levels of systemic oxytocin,. This makes the uterus contract more quickly and decreases maternal bleeding. This is a similar hormone to pitocin which is a synthetic hormone to make the uterus contract.

As fat, accumulated during pregnancy, is used in milk production, prolonged breastfeeding can help mothers to return to their previous weight. Frequent and exclusive breastfeeding can cause lactational amenorrhea, a delay in the return of menstruation and therefore fertility. However, this is not a suggested method of birth control because fertility can return before menstruation does, and thus a woman can and often times does get pregnant before a period.

Breastfeeding is possible throughout pregnancy, but generally milk production will be reduced at some point during the pregnancy.

Breastfeeding mothers have less risk of many diseases including breast cancer, ovarian cancer, decreased insulin requirements in diabetic mothers, stabilizing maternal endometriosis, less risk of post-partum hemorrhage, less risk of endometrial cancer, less risk of osteoporosis and beneficial effects on insulin levels of mothers with polycystic ovary syndrome.

Mothers who breastfeed longer than eight months have better bone re-mineralisation.

On the other hand, some breastfeeding women have pain from thrush or staph infections of the nipple. Although with continued breast feeding and treatment these can be easily managed and be of little concern for mother and child.

From financial standpoint, breastfeeding is the most cost effective as it can provide nourishment to a child with no cost to the mother (aside from any additional food costs to the mother to compensate for the additional caloric expenditure), whereas infant formulas are generally expensive.

Bonding
The hormones released during breastfeeding strengthen the mother's nurturing feelings towards the child. Strengthening the maternal bond is very important as up to 80% of mothers suffer from some form of postnatal depression, though most cases are very mild. The woman's partner and other caregivers can support her in a variety of ways and this support is an important factor in successful breastfeeding. Teaching partners how to manage common difficulties is associated with higher breastfeeding rates.

Breastfeeding can have an impact on the personal relationship between a mother's partner and the child. While some partners may feel left out when the mother is feeding the baby, others see it as an opportunity for strengthening family bonds. Looking after a new baby and breastfeeding take time. This can add pressure to the partner and the family, because the partner has to care for the mother as well as performing tasks she would otherwise do. However, as partners are often very willing to give this support, this pressure can help to strengthen family bonds.

If the mother is away, an alternative caregiver may be able to use expressed breast milk (EBM) to feed the baby. The various breast pumps available for sale and rent make it possible for working mothers to breastfeed their babies for as long as they want. However, the mother must produce and store enough milk to feed the child for the time she is away and this may not always be practical. Also, the other caregiver must be comfortable in handling breast milk. These two factors may prompt the mother - perhaps against her wishes - to switch to artificial feeding, either temporarily or permanently.

Recommendations and research
The World Health Organization advises: A vast majority of mothers can and should breastfeed, just as vast majority of infants can and should be breastfed. Only under exceptional circumstances can a mother's milk be considered as unsuitable for her infant. For those few health situations where infants cannot, or should not, be breastfed, the choice of the best alternative – expressed milk from the infant's own mother, breast milk from a healthy wet-nurse or a human-milk bank, or a breast milk substitute fed with a cup, which is a safer method than a feeding bottle or a teat – depends on individual circumstances. Infants who are not breastfed, for whatever reason, should receive special attention from the health and social welfare system since they constitute a risk group.

Breastfeeding complications
Despite being a natural human activity, there are cases where breastfeeding can be difficult or contraindicated.

While breastfeeding difficulties are not uncommon, putting the baby to the breast as soon as possible after birth helps to reduce them greatly. The AAP breastfeeding policy says: Delay weighing, measuring, bathing, needle-sticks, and eye prophylaxis until after the first feeding is completed. Many breastfeeding difficulties can be resolved with proper hospital procedures, properly trained nurses and hospital staff, and lactation consultants.

Infant weight gain
Breastfed infants generally gain weight according to the following guidelines:


 * 0–4 months: 170 grams per week†
 * 4–6 months: 113–142 grams per week
 * 6–12 months: 57–113 grams per week


 * † It is acceptable for some babies to gain 113–142 grams (4–5 ounces) per week. This average is taken from the lowest weight, not the birth weight.

The average breastfed baby doubles birth weight in 5–6 months. By one year, the typical breastfed baby will weigh about 2½ times birth weight. At one year, breastfed babies tend to be leaner than bottle fed babies. By two years, differences in weight gain and growth between breastfed and formula-fed babies are no longer evident.

Methods and considerations
There are many books and videos for new mothers to advise them about breastfeeding. Advice and support can also be obtained from a lactation consultant in hospitals or private practice, or from volunteer organizations of breastfeeding mothers such as La Leche League.

Early breastfeeding
When mothers initiate breast-feeding within one-half hour of birth, the baby's suckling reflex is strongest, and the baby is more alert.

Early breast-feeding is associated with fewer nighttime feeding problems

Time and place for breastfeeding
Breastfeeding at least once every two to three hours helps to keep up the milk production. For most women, a target of eight breastfeeding or pumping sessions every 24 hours keeps their milk production high. It is common for newborn babies to feed more often than this: 10 to 12 breastfeeding sessions every 24 hours is common, and some may even feed 18 times a day. Feeding a baby on demand (sometimes referred to as "on cue"), which may mean breastfeeding many times more than the recommended minimum, feeding when the baby shows early signs of hunger, is the best way to maintain milk production and ensure the baby's needs for milk and comfort are being satisfied. However, it may be important to recognize whether a baby is truly hungry, as breastfeeding too frequently may mean the child receives a disproportionately high amount of foremilk, and not enough hindmilk, potentially creating problems. .

Babies usually show they are hungry by waking up (newborns), mouthing their fists, moaning or fussing. Crying is a late indicator of hunger. When babies' cheeks are stroked, the rooting instinct makes them move their face towards the stroking and open their mouth.

Breastfeeding can make mothers thirsty, especially at first, when both mother and baby are inexperienced and when feeding sessions can last for up to an hour or more (there is no time limit for breastfeeding). Having water readily available helps mothers maintain proper hydration.

Place


In the hospitals, rooming-in care is used for breastfeeding.

In some places, including hypermarkets, there are breastfeeding rooms.

Most states now have breastfeeding laws which allow a mother to breastfeed her baby anywhere she is allowed to be.

Latching on, feeding and positioning
When the baby's cheek is stroked with the nipple, the baby will open its mouth and turn towards it. So that the baby will latch on well, the nipple should be pushed into its mouth so that the baby has a mouthful of nipple and areola. The nipple should be at the back of the baby's throat, with the baby's tongue lying flat in its mouth. Inverted or flat nipples can be massaged so that the baby will have more to latch onto.

Many women wear nursing brassieres for easier access to the breast, but these are not always necessary and certainly not required. In the very early days a nursing bra can make breastfeeding complicated and uncomfortable. Wearing a bra at any time after birth will not affect how the breast changes with pregnancy and breastfeeding. Many women find that the size of their breasts change dramatically and so fitting a bra is better done after childbirth rather than before. An ill-fitting bra, whether designed for nursing or otherwise, can cause plugged ducts or mastitis.

Pain in the nipple or breast is linked to incorrect breastfeeding techniques. Failure to latch on is one of the main reasons for ineffective feeding and can lead to infant health concerns. A 2006 study found that inadequate parental education, incorrect breastfeeding techniques, or both were associated with higher rates of preventable hospital admissions in newborns.

The baby may pull away from the nipple after a few minutes or after a much longer period of time. Normal feeds at the breast can last a few sucks (newborns), from 10 to 20 minutes or even longer (on demand). Sometimes, after the finishing of a breast, the mother may offer the other breast.

The length of feeds varies a lot. Regardless of the time taken, the breastfeeding mother should be comfortable.
 * Upright: The sitting position with the back straight and leaning back comfortably.
 * Mobile: The mother carries her nursling in a sling or other baby carrier while breastfeeding. Doing so permits the mother to incorporate breastfeeding into the varied work of daily life
 * Lying down: Good for night feeds or for those who have had a caesarean section
 * On her back: Mother is usually sitting slightly upright; particularly useful for tandem breastfeeding (nursing more than one child)
 * On her side: The mother and baby lie on their sides
 * Hands and knees: The mother is on all fours with the baby underneath her (not usually recommended)

While most women breastfeed their child in the cradling position, there are many ways to hold the feeding baby. It depends on the mother and child's comfort and the feeding preference of the baby. Some babies prefer one breast to the other, but the mother should offer both breasts at every nursing with her newborn.
 * Cradling positions:
 * Cradle hold: The baby is held with its head in the woman's elbow horizontally across the abdomen, "tummy to tummy", with the woman in an upright and supported position image
 * Cross-cradle hold: As above but the baby is held with its head in the woman's hand
 * Football hold: The woman is upright and the baby is held securely under the mother's arm with the head cradled in her hands. This position is especially useful for feeding twins simultaneously image
 * Feeding up hill: The baby lies stomach to stomach with the mother who is lying on her back; this is helpful for babies finding it difficult to feed
 * Lying down:
 * On its side: The mother and baby lie on their sides
 * On its back: The baby is lying on its back (cushioned by something soft) with the mother on her hands and knees above the child (not usually recommended)

When tandem breastfeeding, the mother is unable to move the baby from one breast to another and comfort can be more of an issue. As tandem breastfeeding brings extra strain to the arms, especially as the babies grow, many mothers of twins recommend the use of more supporting pillows. Favoured positions include:
 * Double cradle hold
 * Double clutch hold image
 * One clutched baby and one cradled baby
 * Lying down

Exclusive breastfeeding
Exclusive breastfeeding is when an infant receives no other food or drink, or even water, besides breast milk (whether expressed or through breastfeeding).

International guidelines recommend that all infants be breastfed exclusively for the first six months of life. While each country has its own policy regarding infant feeding, it is generally accepted that newborns should be exclusively breastfed for around 6 months, and that breastfeeding should continue with the addition of appropriate foods, for two years or more. The practice of exclusive breastfeeding has dramatically reduced infant mortality in developing countries due to a reduction in diarrhea and infectious diseases.

Exclusively breastfed infants feed, anywhere from 6 to 14 times a day. Their requirements vary greatly. Newborns consume from 30 to 90 ml (1 to 3 US fluid ounces). After the age of four weeks, babies consume about 120ml (4 US fluid ounces) per feed. Each baby is different, and as it grows the amount will increase. It is important to recognise the baby's hunger signs and it is advised that the baby should dictate the number, frequency, and length of each feed, based on the assumption that it knows how much milk it needs. The supply of milk in the breast is determined by the frequency and length of these feeds or the amount of milk expressed. The birth weight of the baby may affect its feeding habits, and mothers may be influenced by what they perceive its requirements to be. For example, a baby born small for gestational age may lead a mother to believe that her child needs to feed more than if it larger; they should, however, go by the demands of the baby rather than what they feel is necessary.

It can be hard to accurately measure the amount of food a breastfed baby consumes, but babies normally feed to meet their own requirements. Babies that fail to eat enough may exhibit symptoms of failure to thrive. If necessary, it is possible to estimate output from wet and soiled nappies (diapers): 8 wet cloth or 5–6 wet disposable, and 2–5 soiled per 24 hours suggests an acceptable amount of input for newborns older than 5–6 days old. After 2–3 months, stool frequency is a less accurate measure of adequate input as some normal infants may go up to 10 days between stools. Babies can also be weighed before and after feeds.

Expressing breast milk
When direct breastfeeding is not possible a baby can still be fed breast milk. By expressing (artificially removing and storing) her milk, a mother can enable her child to be fed with her milk while she is away. With manual massage or the use of a breast pump a woman can express her milk and keep it in freezer storage bags, a supplemental nursing system, or a bottle ready for use. This container may be kept at room temperature for up to ten hours, refrigerated for up to eight days or frozen for up to four to six months. Research suggests that antioxidant activity in expressed breast milk decreases over time but it still remains in higher levels than in infant formula.

Expressing breast milk can keep up a mother's milk supply when she and her child are apart for long. If a sick baby is unable to feed, expressed milk can be fed through a nasogastric tube.

Expressed milk can also be used when a mother is having trouble breastfeeding, such as when a newborn causes grazing and bruising. When an older baby grows teeth and bites the nipple, the mother's reaction - a jump and a cry of pain - is usually enough to discourage the child from biting again. Babies or toddler that are truly feeding cannot physically bite the nipple, if they are, they arent' feeding but playing.

"Exclusively Expressing", "Exclusively pumping" and "EPing" are terms used to describe the situation where a mother does not directly breastfeed her baby, but still feeds her baby exclusively on breastmilk. There are many reasons why this may be the case. For example, the mother may be unable to breastfeed directly, due to her baby being unable or unwilling to latch on to the breast. With good pumping habits (particularly in the first 12 weeks while the milk supply is being established) it is possible to produce enough milk to feed the baby for as long as the mother wishes to. For more information on this subject, Kellymom has a page of links relating to the topic of exclusive pumping.

It is generally advised to delay using a bottle in feeding expressed breast milk until the baby is about 4-6 weeks old and is good at sucking directly from the breast. This is to avoid nipple confusion and nursing strike, when the baby prefers to suck from bottle, which takes less effort, and so loses its desire to suck from the breast. If feeding expressed breast milk (EBM) must be done before 4-6 weeks of age, it is recommended that it be given by other means such as feeding spoons or feeding cups. Also, EBM should be given by someone other than the breastfeeding mother (or wet nurse), so that the baby can learn to associate direct feeding with the mother (or wet nurse) and associate bottle with other people.

Some women donate their expressed breast milk (EBM) to others, either directly or through a milk bank. Though some dislike the idea of feeding their own child with another woman's milk, others appreciate being able to give their baby the benefits of breast milk. Feeding expressed breast milk&mdash;either from donors or the baby's own mother&mdash;is the feeding method of choice for premature babies.

Mixed feeding
Predominant or mixed breastfeeding means feeding breast milk along with infant formula, baby food and even water, depending on the age of the child. Babies feed differently with artificial teats than from a breast. When feeding from the breast, the tongue massages the milk out rather than sucking, and the nipple does not go as far into the mouth; when feeding from a bottle, an infant will suck harder and the milk may come in more rapidly. Therefore, mixing breastfeeding and bottle-feeding (or using a pacifier) before the baby is used to feeding from its mother can induce the infant to prefer the bottle to the breast. Orthodontic teats, which are generally slightly longer, are closer to the nipple. Some mothers supplement feed with a small syringe or flexible cup to reduce the risk of artificial nipple preference.

Tandem breastfeeding
Feeding two infants simultaneously is called tandem breastfeeding (Sidenote: Feeding a child while being pregnant with another can also be considered a tandem breastfeeding condition for the nursing mother, as she also provides the nutrition for two ). The most common need for tandem breastfeeding is after the birth of twins where both babies are fed at the same time. The appetite and feeding habits of each baby may not be the same, which could mean feeding each according to their own individual needs, while also trying to get them to breastfeed together to minimize time spent breastfeeding.

In cases of multiple births with three or more children, it can be extremely difficult for the mother to organise feeding around the appetites of all the babies. While breasts can produce large quantities of milk, according to the demand placed upon them, it is common for women to use alternatives, although many mothers have been able to breastfeed their infants successfully without them.

Tandem breastfeeding may also occur when a woman has a baby while breastfeeding an older child. During the late stages of pregnancy the milk will change to colostrum, and some older nurslings will continue to feed even with this change, while others may wean due to the change in taste or drop in supply.

Extended breastfeeding
Although some may find it controversial, some women breastfeed their children for as many as 3 to (rarely) 7 years from birth. The human jaw is physically designed to breastfeed extendedly. Breastfeeding past one year is called extended breastfeeding. (Often called "sustained breastfeeding" by supporters and those outside the U.S. ) Supporters of extended breastfeeding believe that all the benefits of human milk, nutritional, immunological and emotional, continue for as long as a child nurses. Often the older child will nurse infrequently or sporadically as a way of bonding with the mother. Detractors may believe that prolonging breastfeeding for several years can result in the child developing emotional or psycho-sexual problems, however there is no solid evidence to support these beliefs.

Example
H.L. Hunt, the Texas oil man, was nursed by his mother until he was seven years old (1896). Hunt was something of a prodigy and his mother rewarded him by allowing him to continue nursing at her breast long past the customary weaning age. He finally stopped this practice when his father found him suckling his mother while she was standing in their kitchen kneading dough. As an adult, H.L. Hunt wrote about this without embarrassment.

Shared breastfeeding
It is sometimes common for more than one woman to feed a child, such as in developing nations within Africa. This shared breastfeeding has been highlighted as a source of HIV infection in infants. . A woman who is engaged to breastfeed another's baby is known as a wet nurse. Islam has codified the relationship between this woman and the infants she nurses, and also between the infants when they grow up, so that milk siblings are considered as blood siblings and cannot marry.

Weaning
Weaning is the process of gradually introducing the infant to what will be its adult diet and reducing the supply of breast milk. The infant is considered to be fully weaned once it no longer receives any breast milk and begins to rely on solid foods for all its nutrition. Most mammals cease the production of the enzyme lactase at the end of weaning, becoming lactose intolerant. Many humans have a mutation that allows the production of lactase throughout life and can drink milk well beyond the age of weaning. This milk comes from dairy animals, usually cows or goats.

In the past, bromocriptine was sometimes used to reduce the engorgement experienced by many women during weaning. However, it was discovered that when used for this purpose, this medication posed serious health risks to women, such as stroke, and the U.S. FDA withdrew this indication for the drug.

History of breastfeeding


Prior to the last few hundred years or so, alternatives to breastfeeding were rare. Attempts were made in 15th century Europe to introduce cow or goat's milk, but were not very positive. The next resurgence came in the 18th century when flour or cereal mixed with broth were introduced as substitutes, but this also did not have a favorable outcome. True commercial infant formulas did not appear on the market until the mid-1800s, and it was post-WWII that their use became widespread. As the risks of increased illness, death and other negative consequences with the use of breast milk alternatives became well-established in medical literature, breastfeeding rates have increased in recent times in countries that have enacted measures to protect the rights of infants and mothers to breastfeed.

Website references

 * American Academy of Pediatrics Policy Statement on Breastfeeding
 * 4woman.gov – US Department of Health & Human Services Breastfeeding resource page
 * Breastfeeding NHS – UK NHS Breastfeeding strategy
 * Royal Australasian College of Physicians Paediatric Policy: Breastfeeding
 * American Family Physician Initial Management of Breastfeeding by Keith Sinusas and Amy Galgliardi
 * Benefits of breastfeeding United States Breastfeeding Committee
 * Plan International
 * Mama's Baby: Happy, Healthy and Breastfed Black Women's health Imperative
 * The Adoptive Breastfeeding Resource Website
 * Breastfeeding Notes
 * Population Reports: Better Breastfeeding, Healthier Lives – Johns Hopkins INFO Project, 2006
 * Feminism and Breastfeeding from SignsJournal of Women in Culture and Society 2006, vol. 31, no.2

Infant pain and breastfeeding

 * American Academy of Pediatrics. Committee on Psychosocial Aspects of Child and Family Health; Task Force on Pain in Infants, Children, and Adolescents. The assessment and management of acute pain in infants, children, and adolescents. Pediatrics. 2001 Sep;108(3):793-7.
 * Howard CR, Howard FM, Weitzman ML. Acetaminophen analgesia in neonatal circumcision: the effect on pain. Pediatrics. 1994;93(4):641-6.
 * The Womanly Art of Breastfeeding, Third Edition, July 1981. Pages 92–93 Elective Surgery for you or baby
 * See also the section on circumcision and breastfeeding in Medical analysis of circumcision

Health risks of formula feeding

 * Health risks of not breastfeeding US Department of Health & Human Services
 * The Risks of Infant Formula Feeding breastfeeding task force of Greater Los Angeles
 * Breastfeeding and the Risk of Postneonatal Death in the United States Pediatrics, Vol. 113 No. 5 May 2004 & resulting correspondence
 * Supplementation of the Breastfed Baby "Just One Bottle Won't Hurt" ...or Will It? by Marsha Walker RN IBCLC (National Alliance for Breastfeeding Advocacy)
 * Salon.com Formula for disaster by Katie Allison Granju
 * What should I know about infant formula? Kellymom.com (contains links to other websites)
 * National Alliance for Breastfeeding Advocacy contains links to other articles including:
 * Contaminants in Infant Formula
 * Recalls of Infant Feeding Products

Breastfeeding associations and organizations

 * Australian Breastfeeding Association — Non-profit breastfeeding support organization
 * INFACT Canada — Canadian breastfeeding promotion and rights
 * La Leche League International — Volunteer breastfeeding support organization

Videos

 * Instructional videos (with Norwegian comments, but written explanations in English)

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