Program logic model

The logic model is a general framework for describing work in an organization. Since work is often packaged in programs, it is often referred to as the program logic model.

Definition
In its simplest form, the logic model analyzes work into four categories or steps: inputs, activities, outputs, and outcomes. These represent the logical flow from:
 * 1) inputs (resources such as money, employees, and equipment) to
 * 2) work activities, programs or processes, to
 * 3) the immediate outputs of the work that are delivered to customers, to
 * 4) outcomes or results that are the long-term consequences of delivering outputs.

The basic logic model typically is displayed in a diagram such as this:

INPUTS --> ACTIVITIES OR PROCESSES --> OUTPUTS --> OUTCOMES 

Advantages
By describing work in this way, managers have an easier way to define the work and measure it. Performance measures can be drawn from any of the steps. One of the key insights of the logic model is the importance of measuring final outcomes or results, because it is quite possible to waste time and money (inputs), "spin the wheels" on work activities, or produce outputs without achieving desired outcomes. It is these outcomes (impacts, long-term results) that are the only justification for doing the work in the first place. For commercial organizations, outcomes relate to profit. For not-for-profit or governmental organizations, outcomes relate to successful achievement of mission or program goals.

Variations on the Theme
Following the early development of the logic model in the 1970s by Joseph Wholey and others, many refinements and variations have been added to the basic concept. These have incorporated language that is more familiar to a particular field.

One of the common challenges facing organizations is how to measure outcomes. Because outcomes are delayed in time and may be mixed with many other causes, it is often difficult to measure them, even though outcomes are the most important strategic measures. Therefore some managers insert a step called "intermediate outcomes" between outputs and outcomes. Intermediate outcome measures are leading or indirect indicators of end outcomes. Intermediate outcomes often have to do with customer satisfaction, which explains why there has been an increase in the use of customer satisfaction surveys in modern management. The advantage of customer surveys is that they are relatively quick and easy to implement, but if properly designed they can give meaningful feedback on customer perceptions, which are relevant to outcomes.

University Cooperative Extension Programs in the US have developed a more elaborate logic model, called the Program Action Logic Model, which includes six steps:  Inputs (what we invest)  Outputs: Activities (the actual tasks we do) Participation (who we serve; customers & stakeholders)  Outcomes - Impacts  Short Term (learning: awareness, knowledge, skills, motivations) Medium Term (action: behavior, practice, decisions, policies)</li> Long Term (consequences: social, economic, environmental etc.)</li> </ul>

In front of Inputs, there is a description of a Situation and Priorities. These are the considerations that determine what Inputs will be needed.

The University of Wisconsin Extension offers a series of guidance documents on the use of logic models. There is also an extensive bibliography of work on this program logic model.

Program Planning
One of the most important uses of the logic model is for program planning. Here it helps managers to 'plan with the end in mind' [Stephen Covey], rather than just consider inputs (e.g. budgets, employees) or just the tasks that must be done. By placing the focus on ultimate outcomes or results, planners can think backwards through the logic model to identify how best to achieve the desired results. Planners therefore need to understand the difference between the categories of the logic model.

Performance Evaluation
The logic model is often used in government or not-for-profit organizations, where the mission and vision are not aimed at achieving a financial benefit. In such situations, where profit is not the intended result, it may be difficult to monitor progress toward outcomes. A program logic model provides such indicators, in terms of output and outcome measures of performance. It is therefore important in these organizations to carefully specify the desired results, and consider how to monitor them over time. Often, such as in education or social programs, the outcomes are long-term and mission success is far in the future. In these cases, intermediate or shorter-term outcomes may be identified that provide an indication of progress toward the ultimate long-term outcome.

Traditionally, government programs were described only in terms of their budgets. It is easy to measure the amount of money spent on a program, but this is a poor indicator of mission success. Likewise it is relatively easy to measure the amount of work done (e.g. number of workers or number of years spent), but the workers may have just been 'spinning their wheels' without getting very far in terms of ultimate results or outcomes. The production of outputs is a better indicator that something was delivered to customers, but it is still possible that the output did not really meet the customer's needs, was not used, etc. Therefore, the focus on results or outcomes has become a mantra in government and not-for-profit programs.

The President's Management Agenda is an example of the increasing emphasis on results in government management. It states: "Government likes to begin things — to declare grand new programs and causes. But good beginnings are not the measure of success. What matters in the end is completion. Performance. Results."

This document refers to results seventy times.

The Logic Model and other Management Frameworks
There are numerous other popular management frameworks that have been developed in recent decades. This often causes confusion, because the various frameworks have different functions. It is important to select the right tool for the job. The following list of popular management tools is suggested to indicate where they are most appropriate (this list is by no means complete):

Organizational assessment tools - fact-gathering tools for a comprehensive view of the as-is situation in an organization, but without prescribing how to change it:  Malcolm Baldridge Assessment (United States) EFQM (Europe) SWOT Analysis (Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, Threats) Skills audits Customer surveys </ul> </ul> Strategic planning tools - for identifying and prioritizing major long-term desired results in an organization, and strategies to achieve those results:  Strategic Vision (Writing a clear "picture of the future" statement) Strategy Maps Portfolio Management (Managing a portfolio of interdependent projects) Participatory Impact Pathways Analysis (An approach for project staff and stakeholders to jointly agree on a vision, develop a logic model and an evaluation plan) </ul> </ul> Program planning and evaluation tools - for developing details of individual programs (what to do and what to measure) once overall strategies have been defined: <ul> <li>Program logic model <li>Managing for Results model </ul> </ul> <ul>Performance measurement tools - for measuring, monitoring and reporting the quality, efficiency, speed, cost and other aspects of projects, programs and/or processes: <ul> <li>Balanced scorecard systems <li>KPI - key performance indicators <li>PART - Program Assessment Rating Tool (US federal government) </ul> </ul> <ul>Process improvement tools - for monitoring and improving the quality or efficiency of work processes: <ul> <li>PDCA - Plan-do-check-act (Deming) <li>TQM - Total Quality Management (Shewhart, Deming, Juran) - A set of TQM tools is available. <li>Six Sigma <li>BPR - Business Process Reengineering <li>Organizational Design </ul> </ul> <ul>Process standardization tools - for maintaining and documenting processes or resources to keep them repeatable and stable: <ul> <li>ISO 9000 <li>CMMI - Capability Maturity Model Integration <li>Configuration management <li>Enterprise Architecture </ul> </ul>

Other resources

 * Alter, C. & Murty, S. (1997). Logic modeling: A tool for teaching practice evaluation. Journal of Social Work Education, 33(1), 103-117.
 * Conrad, Kendon J., & Randolph, Frances L. (1999). Creating and using logic models: Four perspectives. Alcoholism Treatment Quarterly, 17(1-2), 17-32.
 * Hernandez, Mario (2000). Using logic models and program theory to build outcome accountability. Education and Treatment of Children, 23(1), 24-41.
 * Julian, David A. (1997). The utilization of the logic model as a system level planning and evaluation device. Evaluation and Program Planning, 20(3), 251-257.
 * McLaughlin, J. A., & Jordan, G. B. (1999). Logic models: A tool for telling your program's performance story. Evaluation and Program Planning, 22(1), 65-72.
 * Stinchcomb, Jeanne B. (2001). Using logic modeling to focus evaluation efforts: Translating operational theories into practical measures. Journal of Offender Rehabilitation, 33(2), 47-65.
 * Unrau, Y.A. (2001). Using client exit interviews to illuminate outcomes in program logic models: A case example. Evaluation and Program Planning, 24(4), 353-361.

Additional references

 * den Heyer, M. (2001). A Bibliography for Program Logic Models / Logframe Analysis.  This is a list of articles that evaluate program logic models as a set of tools and how they have been used.
 * Shaping Outcomes . This is an on-line curriculum in outcomes-based planning and evaluation designed for museum and library professionals and students.