Male castration

Castration (also referred as: gelding, neutering, orchiectomy, and orchidectomy) is any action, surgical, chemical, or otherwise, by which a biological male loses use of the testes. This causes sterilization, preventing him from reproducing; it also greatly reduces the production of certain hormones, such as testosterone. It is usually considered painful, and in some countries is used as torture. It should not be confused with penectomy, which is the whole or partial removal of the penis, nor with vasectomy, which is a procedure to sterilize a male by blocking the vas deferens, the tubes that connect the testicles to the prostate.

The term castration is sometimes also used to refer to the removal of the ovaries in the female, otherwise known as an oophorectomy or, in animals, spaying. This is similar to male castration, as it causes females to stop producing estrogen, and makes them infertile.

Castration in humans
The practice of castration has roots before recorded human history. Castration was frequently used in certain cultures, such as in Europe, the Middle East, India, Africa and China, for religious or social reasons. After battles, winners castrated their captives or bodies of the defeated to symbolise their victory and 'seize' their power. Castrated men &mdash; eunuchs &mdash; were often admitted to special social classes and were used to guard harems. Castration also figured in a number of religious castration cults. Other religions, for example Judaism, were strongly opposed to the practice.

Eunuchs in China have been known to usurp power in many eras of Chinese history, most notably in the Han and Ming Dynasties. There are similar recorded Middle Eastern events.

In ancient times, castration often involved the total removal of all the male genitalia. This involved great danger of death due to bleeding or infection and, in some states such as the Byzantine Empire, was seen as the same as a death sentence. Removal of only the testicles had much less risk. The Hijras of India still practice the total removal of the male genitalia.

In China, male castration of a person who entered the caste of eunuchs during imperial times involved the removal of the whole genitalia, that is, the removal of the testes, penis, and scrotum,. The removed organs were returned to the eunuch to be interred with him when he died so that, upon rebirth, he could become a whole man again. The penis, testicles and scrotum were euphemistically termed as bǎo (寶) in Mandarin Chinese, which literally means 'precious treasure'. These were preserved in alcohol and kept in a pottery jar by the eunuch. 

Reasons
Either surgical removal of both testicles, or chemical castration may be carried out in the case of prostate cancer, as hormone testosterone depletion treatment to slow down the cancer. Similarly, testosterone depletion treatment (surgical removal of both testicles, or chemical castration) is used to greatly reduce sexual drive or interest in those with 'deviant' sexual drives, obsessions or behaviors, or any combination of those.. Castration in humans has been proposed, and sometimes used, as a method of birth control in certain poorer regions.

Male-to-female transsexuals, as well as some transgendered people, often undergo physical castration. Castration can be done before, during or in place of sex reassignment surgery.

Voluntary chemical or surgical castration has been in practice in many countries; reports are available from Scandinavian and European countries, in particular, for the past eighty plus years (chemical for the last thirty or so years) as an option for effective treatment of child molesters, rapists and sexual sadists, allowing them to return to the community from otherwise lengthy detentions. In the case of chemical castration, ongoing regular injections of anti-androgens are required.

Unfortunately, chemical castration seems to have a greater effect on bone density than physical castration. Since the development of teriparatide, this severe bone loss has been able to be reversed in nearly every case. At this time there is a limitation on the use of this medication to 24 months until the long-term use is better evaluated.

With the advent of chemical castration, physical castration is not generally recommended by the medical community.

As punishment
Ancient Greek writings report Persian forces castrating defeated foes. Tamerlane was recorded to have castrated Armenian prisoners of war who had fought as allies of the Ottoman Sultan Bayezid I; others were buried alive.

Edward Gibbon's famous work Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire reports castration of defeated foes at the hands of the Normans. The Vietcong have sometimes been accused of castrating US war prisoners, Vietnamese village elders and others who opposed their policies. Castration has also been used in modern conflicts, as the Janjaweed militiamen currently (as of 2005) attacking citizens of the Darfur region in Sudan often castrate villagers and leave them to bleed to death as part of a campaign of terror.

Sima Qian, the famous Chinese Historian, was castrated by order of the Emperor of China for dissent. Another famous victim of castration was the medieval French philosopher, scholar, teacher and monk Pierre Abélard, castrated by relatives of his lover, Héloïse.

Yet another famous castration victim was Bishop Wimund, a 12th Century English adventurer and invader of the Scottish coast.

A temporary chemical castration has been studied and developed as a preventive measure and punishment for several repeated sex crimes such as rape or other sexually related violence [reference needed]. Physical castration is highly effective as, historically, it results in a 20-year re-offense rate of less than 2.2%, much lower than what was otherwise expected.

Involuntary castration also appears in the history of warfare, sometimes used by one side to torture or demoralize their enemies. It was also practiced to extinguish opposing male lineages and thus allow the victor to possess the defeated men's women. Involuntary castration under such circumstances involved excruciating pain and humiliation as well as various physical, social and psychological consequences.

For religious reasons
In Europe, when females were not permitted to sing in church or cathedral choirs in the Roman Catholic Church, boys were sometimes castrated to prevent their voices breaking at puberty and to develop a special high voice. The first documents mentioning castrati are Italian church records from the 1550s. In the baroque music era these singers were highly appreciated by Opera composers as well. Famous castrati include: Farinelli, Senesino, Carestini and Caffarelli. The last castrato was Alessandro Moreschi (1858-1922) who served in the Sistine Chapel Choir.

A number of religious cults have included castration as a central theme of their practice. These include:


 * The cult of Cybele, in which devotees castrated themselves in ecstatic emulation of Attis: see Gallus.
 * Hijra (India)
 * Some followers of early Christianity considered castration as an acceptable way to counter sinful desires of the flesh. Origen is reported by Eusebius to have castrated himself based on his reading of the Gospel of Matthew 19:12, although there is some doubt concerning this story (Schaff considers the account genuine but cites Baur et. al. in opposition). Boston Corbett was likewise inspired by this same verse to castrate himself (Corbett was the 19th-century American soldier who is generally believed to have fired the shot that killed John Wilkes Booth.) Bishop Melito of Sardis (d. ca 180) was a eunuch, according to the church history of Eusebius of Caesarea, though, significantly the word "virgin" was substituted in Rufino's Latin translation of Eusebius.
 * Skoptzy
 * Heaven's Gate (cult)

Medical consequences
A subject of castration who is castrated before the onset of puberty will retain a high voice, non-muscular build and small genitals. They may well be taller than the average, as the production of sex hormones in puberty - particularly testosterone - stops long bone growth. The person may not develop pubic hair and will have a small sex drive or none at all. Castrations after the onset of puberty will typically reduce the sex drive considerably or eliminate it altogether. The voice does not change. Some castrates report mood changes, such as depression or a more serene outlook on life. Body strength and muscle mass can decrease somewhat. Body hair sometimes may decrease. Castration prevents male pattern baldness and reduces or eliminates the risk of testicular and prostate cancer.

Historically, eunuchs suffered from a range of urogenital problems associated with the removal of their sexual organs, and they had their own specialist doctors, such as Joshua Marfa (1834-1893) who catered to their health needs.

Without Hormone Replacement Therapy (HRT), typical symptoms similar to those experienced by menopausal women include hot flashes, gradual bone density loss resulting in osteopenia or osteoporosis, potential weight gain or redistribution of body fat to the hips/chest. Gynecomastia, or the development of breast tissue, may also occur sometimes. Resumption of testosterone in the form of gel, patches, or injections can largely reverse these effects.

Castration in psychoanalysis and literary theory
The concept of castration plays an important role in psychoanalysis, see e.g. castration anxiety.

Although castration literally means removal of the testes, in psychoanalytic terms the penis is seen having more symbolic significance than the testes, and thus castration refers to the removal of the penis, and more so the removal of the phallus. And since the phallus is not merely the penis but rather the power and authority that the penis represents, any removal of that power is in effect a removal of the phallus even if the penis itself remains intact, and thus is castration. Thus, blindness, decapitation, dismemberment, mutilation, rape, etc., can all be seen as forms of castration, for they all remove the phallus.

Women as lacking a penis and a phallus are always already castrated, and yet simultaneously there is also sometimes the idea that they can be castrated by the loss of power and authority.

Castration also plays an important role in psychoanalytically-influenced literary theory, for example Harold Bloom's The Anxiety of Influence. Poetry can also be seen as castrating, with male poets either being castrated through being outdone by their male predecessors (as in Bloom), or male poets (and even mere readers) being castrated by the force of the female sublime as conveyed to them through poetry (as in Maxwell). Catherine Maxwell identifies Philomela as being castrated by Tereus when he rapes and mutilates her.

Castration in veterinary practice
Castration is common in animal husbandry and animal fancy, where it is intended for favouring a given desired development of the animal or of its habits.

In animal fancy
Usually domestic pets are subject to castration in order to avoid sexual frustration or sexual contacts and consequent reproduction. In the case of pets, this is usually called spaying and neutering, and is encouraged to prevent overpopulation of unwanted animals. Breeding specimens are kept entire and fetch higher prices when sold.

In animal husbandry
In the food industry, cattle and other ruminants are often castrated in order to increase their weight and improve the taste of the meat (with the advantage of relevant economies of scale for the breeder). Male animals may also be castrated in order to make them more tractable.

A specialized vocabulary has arisen for neutered animals of given species:
 * Barrow (pig)
 * Bullock (cattle)
 * Capon (chicken)
 * Dinmont (sheep, goat)
 * Gelding (horse)
 * Gib (cat, ferret)
 * Havier (deer)
 * Hog (pig)
 * Lapin (rabbit)
 * Ox (cattle)
 * Stag (primarily cattle)
 * Steer (cattle)
 * Wether (sheep)

Certain animals, like horses and swine, are usually treated with a scrotal castration (which can be done with the animal standing), while others, like dogs and cats, with a pre-scrotal castration (with the animal recumbent).

Methods of veterinary castration include surgical removal, the use of an elastrator tool to secure a band around the testicles that disrupts the blood supply, the use of a Burdizzo tool or emasculators to crush the spermatic cords and disrupt the blood supply, pharmacological injections and implants and immunological techniques to inoculate the animal against its own sexual hormones.

In veterinary practice an "open" castration refers to a castration in which the inguinal tunic is incised and not sutured. A "closed" castration refers to when the procedure is performed so that the inguinal tunic is sutured together after incision.

Miscellaneous

 * Orthodox Judaism forbids the castration of either humans or animals.
 * Castration was used as a cure for prostate cancer.
 * Some parasitic nematodes chemically castrate their hosts, see microphallus.

On religious castration

 * Susan Elliott, Cutting Too Close for Comfort: Paul's Letter to the Galatians in Its Anatolian Cultic Context Review, in Catholic Biblical Quarterly, October 2004
 * Susan Elliott, Cutting Too Close for Comfort: Paul's Letter to the Galatians in Its Anatolian Cultic Context  Reviews in Review of Biblical Literature